In Vivo Imaging of Transplanted Pancreatic Islets

In Vivo Imaging of Immune Rejection of MIN6 Cells Transplanted in C3H Mice

Recently, we successfully utilized noninvasive magnetic resonance and bioluminescence imaging to track MIN6 cells subcutaneously transplanted in immunocompromised nude mice for up to 64 days. In this study, we further used bioluminescence imaging to investigate the immune rejection of MIN6 cells in immunocompetent C3H mice. A total of 5 × 106 luciferase-transfected MIN6 cells were implanted into the subcutaneous space of each nude or C3H mouse. After transplantation, hypoglycemia and persistent bioluminescence signals were observed in eight of eight (100%) nude mice and five of nine (56%) C3H mice (p < 0.05). We then presensitized a group of C3H mice with C57BL/6 spleen cells just prior to transplantation (n = 14). Interestingly, none of them had hypoglycemia or persistent bioluminescence signals (p < 0.01 vs. C3H mice without presensitization). Histological examination of the grafts revealed a lack or minimal presence of insulin-positive cells in recipients without hypoglycemia and persistent bioluminescence signals. In contrast, recipients with hypoglycemia and persistent bioluminescence signals showed a significant presence of insulin-positive cells in their grafts. Our results indicate that rejection of MIN6 cells occurred in C3H mice and could be enhanced by presensitization with C57BL/6 spleen cells and that bioluminescence imaging is a useful noninvasive tool for detecting rejection of subcutaneously transplanted MIN6 cells.

RNA aptamers specific for transmembrane p24 trafficking protein 6 and Clusterin for the targeted delivery of imaging reagents and RNA therapeutics to human β cells

The ability to detect and target β cells in vivo can substantially refine how diabetes is studied and treated. However, the lack of specific probes still hampers a precise characterization of human β cell mass and the delivery of therapeutics in clinical settings. Here, we report the identification of two RNA aptamers that specifically and selectively recognize mouse and human β cells. The putative targets of the two aptamers are transmembrane p24 trafficking protein 6 (TMED6) and clusterin (CLUS). When given systemically in immune deficient mice, these aptamers recognize the human islet graft producing a fluorescent signal proportional to the number of human islets transplanted. These aptamers cross-react with endogenous mouse β cells and allow monitoring the rejection of mouse islet allografts. Finally, once conjugated to saRNA specific for X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP), they can efficiently transfect non-dissociated human islets, prevent early graft loss, and improve the efficacy of human islet transplantation in immunodeficient in mice.

Comparison of the Effects of Liraglutide on Islet Graft Survival Between Local and Systemic Delivery

Islet transplantation has emerged as a promising treatment for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Liraglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist, protects beta cells after islet transplantation by improving glycemic control through several mechanisms. In this study, we compared the effects of local pretreatment and systemic treatment with liraglutide on islet transplantation in a diabetic mouse model. Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic C57BL/6 mice were transplanted with syngeneic islets under the kidney capsule. Isolated islets were either locally treated with liraglutide before transplantation or mice were treated systemically by intraperitoneal injection after islet transplantation. Local pretreatment of islets with liraglutide was more effective in increasing body weight, decreasing hemoglobin A1c levels, and lowering blood glucose levels in STZ-diabetic mice transplanted with islets. Local pretreatment was also more effective in increasing insulin secretion and islet survival in STZ-diabetic mice. Histological analysis of the transplantation site revealed fewer apoptotic cells following local pretreatment compared with systemic injection of liraglutide. These findings indicate that liraglutide administered once locally before transplantation might have superior effects on islet preservation than systemic administration.

Noninvasive Tracking of mPEG-poly(Ala) Hydrogel-Embedded MIN6 Cells after Subcutaneous Transplantation in Mice

Recently, we demonstrated the feasibility of subcutaneous transplantation of MIN6 cells embedded in a scaffold with poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether (mPEG)-poly(Ala) hydrogels. In this study, we further tracked these grafts using magnetic resonance (MR) and bioluminescence imaging. After being incubated overnight with chitosan-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide (CSPIO) nanoparticles and then mixed with mPEG-poly(Ala) hydrogels, MIN6 cells appeared as dark spots on MR scans. For in vivo experiments, we transfected MIN6 cells with luciferase and/or incubated them overnight with CSPIO overnight; 5 × 10⁶ MIN6 cells embedded in mPEG-poly(Ala) hydrogels were transplanted into the subcutaneous space of each nude mouse. The graft of CSPIO-labeled MIN6 cells was visualized as a distinct hypointense area on MR images located at the implantation site before day 21. However, this area became hyperintense on MR scans for up to 64 days. In addition, positive bioluminescence images were also observed for up to 64 days after transplantation. The histology of removed grafts showed positive insulin and iron staining. These results indicate mPEG-poly(Ala) is a suitable scaffold for β-cell encapsulation and transplantation. Moreover, MR and bioluminescence imaging are useful noninvasive tools for detecting and monitoring mPEG-poly(Ala) hydrogel-embedded MIN6 cells at a subcutaneous site.

Transplant Islets Into the Pinna of the Ear: A Mouse Islet Transplant Model

BACKGROUND

Islets transplanted under the ear skin would allow easy observation of the graft response and survival in vivo. This research was designed to establish an efficient mouse islet transplant model to probe the dynamic cellular interplay in vivo.

METHODS

Green fluorescent protein transgenic mice and BALB/c mice were used as donors and recipients. All recipients were divided into 6 groups of 6 mice each. First, we treated the transplant recipients, including diabetes induction, autologous epididymal fat pad, and MATRIGEL transplant to the ears. Then, 1. we transplanted isolated islets to the ear/ear with fat/ear with MATRIGEL; and 2. transplanted islets with collagen + basic fibroblast growth factor or islets with collagen + vascular endothelial growth factor. Mice in the control group received a sham transplantation with phosphate buffer saline. All recipients were then observed for 30 days with blood glucose (BG) monitoring. Finally, ears were removed with graft on day 28 for histologic examination.

RESULTS

It was suggested that transplant of islets alone could not correct hyperglycemia. Fat, MATRIGEL, collagen, and growth factors have the similar function to form a microenvironment conducive to islet survival. The effect of islet transplantation for correcting hyperglycemia of the fat modification group was better than other groups (P < .05). BG could be normalized, and living islets were detected by anti-insulin immunohistochemistry.

CONCLUSIONS

Transplant islets into the ear with transplanted autologous fat is the optimal way which can be used to analyze the allograft response in vivo and track cell population and migration using labels by confocal microscopy.

A new perspective of probe development for imaging pancreatic beta cell in vivo

Beta cells assume a fundamental role in maintaining blood glucose homeostasis through the secretion of insulin, which is contingent on both beta cell mass and function, in response to elevated blood glucose levels or secretagogues. For this reason, evaluating beta cell mass and function, as well as scrutinizing how they change over time in a diabetic state, are essential prerequisites in elucidating diabetes pathophysiology. Current clinical methods to measure human beta cell mass and/or function are largely lacking, indirect and sub-optimal, highlighting the continued need for noninvasive in vivo beta cell imaging technologies such as optical imaging techniques. While numerous probes have been developed and evaluated for their specificity to beta cells, most of them are more suited to visualize beta cell mass rather than function. In this review, we highlight the distinction between beta cell mass and function, and the importance of developing more probes to measure beta cell function. Additionally, we also explore various existing probes that can be employed to measure beta cell mass and function in vivo, as well as the caveats in probe development for in vivo beta cell imaging.

Molecular imaging of β-cells: diabetes and beyond

Since diabetes is becoming a global epidemic, there is a great need to develop early β-cell specific diagnostic techniques for this disorder. There are two types of diabetes (i.e., type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)). In T1DM, the destruction of pancreatic β-cells leads to reduced insulin production or even absolute insulin deficiency, which consequently results in hyperglycemia. Actually, a central issue in the pathophysiology of all types of diabetes is the relative reduction of β-cell mass (BCM) and/or impairment of the function of individual β-cells. In the past two decades, scientists have been trying to develop imaging techniques for noninvasive measurement of the viability and mass of pancreatic β-cells. Despite intense scientific efforts, only two tracers for positron emission tomography (PET) and one contrast agent for magnetic resonance (MR) imaging are currently under clinical evaluation. β-cell specific imaging probes may also allow us to precisely and specifically visualize transplanted β-cells and to improve transplantation outcomes, as transplantation of pancreatic islets has shown promise in treating T1DM. In addition, some of these probes can be applied to the preoperative detection of hidden insulinomas as well. In the present review, we primarily summarize potential tracers under development for imaging β-cells with a focus on tracers for PET, SPECT, MRI, and optical imaging. We will discuss the advantages and limitations of the various imaging probes and extend an outlook on future developments in the field.