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Peng M, Wang G, Zhu S. Cold-stored mulberry leaves affect antioxidant system and silk proteins of silkworm (Bombyx mori) larva. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2023; 103:7673-7682. [PMID: 37431698 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.12849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cold storage has been widely used to maintain the quality of vegetables, but whether eating cold-stored vegetables affects health remains unknown. RESULTS This study used silkworms as an animal model to evaluate the effects of nutrient changes in cold-stored mulberry leaves (CSML) on health. Compared with fresh mulberry leaves (FML), CSML contained lower vitamin C, soluble sugars and proteins, and higher H2 O2 , suggesting decreased antioxidant ability and nutrition. The CSML did not obviously affect larval survival rate, body weight or dry matter rate, cocoon shape, weight and size, or final rates of cluster and cocooning relative to the FML, suggesting CSML did not alter overall growth and development. However, the CSML increased the initial rates of cluster and cocooning and upregulated BmRpd3, suggesting CSML shortened larval lifespan and enhanced senescence. CSML upregulated BmNOX4, downregulated BmCAT, BmSOD and BmGSH-Px and increased H2 O2 in silkworms, suggesting CSML caused oxidative stress. CSML upregulated ecdysone biosynthesis and inactivation genes and elevated ecdysone concentration in silkworms, suggesting that CSML affected hormone homeostasis. CSML upregulated apoptosis-related genes, downregulated sericin and silk fibroin genes and decreased sericin content rate in silkworms, suggesting oxidative stress and protein deficiency. CONCLUSION Cold storage reduced nutrition and antioxidant capability of mulberry leaves. CSML did not influence growth and development of silkworm larva, but affected health by causing oxidative stress and reducing protein synthesis. The findings show that the ingredient changes in CSML had negative effects on health of silkworms. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaomiao Peng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Postharvest Science of Fruits and Vegetables, Engineering Research Center of Southern Horticultural Products Preservation, Ministry of Education, College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guang Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Postharvest Science of Fruits and Vegetables, Engineering Research Center of Southern Horticultural Products Preservation, Ministry of Education, College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shijiang Zhu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Postharvest Science of Fruits and Vegetables, Engineering Research Center of Southern Horticultural Products Preservation, Ministry of Education, College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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Lin L, Li H, Zheng Q, Hu J, Wu W. Research Progress on the Regulation of Autophagy and Apoptosis in Insects by Sterol Hormone 20-Hydroxyecdysone. INSECTS 2023; 14:871. [PMID: 37999070 PMCID: PMC10672190 DOI: 10.3390/insects14110871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
20E (20-Hydroxyecdysone) is a central steroid hormone that orchestrates developmental changes and metamorphosis in arthropods. While its molecular mechanisms have been recognized for some time, detailed elucidation has primarily emerged in the past decade. PCD (Programmed cell death), including apoptosis, necrosis, efferocytosis, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and autophagy, plays a crucial role in regulated cell elimination, which is vital for cells' development and tissue homeostasis. This review summarizes recent findings on 20E signaling regulated autophagy and apoptosis in insects, including Drosophila melanogaster, Bombyx mori, Helicoverpa armigera, and other species. Firstly, we comprehensively explore the biosynthesis of the sterol hormone 20E and its subsequent signal transduction in various species. Then, we focus on the involvement of 20E in regulating autophagy and apoptosis, elucidating its roles in both developmental contexts and bacterial infection scenarios. Furthermore, our discussion unfolds as a panoramic exposition, where we delve into the fundamental questions with our findings, anchoring them within the grander scheme of our study in insects. Deepening the understanding of 20E-autophagy/apoptosis axis not only underscores the intricate tapestry of endocrine networks, but also offers fresh perspectives on the adaptive mechanisms that have evolved in the face of environmental challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luobin Lin
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Biotechnology Drug Candidates, School of Life Sciences and Biopharmaceuticals, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China; (L.L.); (Q.Z.)
| | - Huaqin Li
- School of Health Sciences, Guangzhou Xinhua University, 19 Huamei Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510520, China;
| | - Qinzhou Zheng
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Biotechnology Drug Candidates, School of Life Sciences and Biopharmaceuticals, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China; (L.L.); (Q.Z.)
| | - Jiaxuan Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Functional Genes, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China;
| | - Wenmei Wu
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Biotechnology Drug Candidates, School of Life Sciences and Biopharmaceuticals, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China; (L.L.); (Q.Z.)
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Albishi NM, Palli SR. Autophagy genes AMBRA1 and ATG8 play key roles in midgut remodeling of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. FRONTIERS IN INSECT SCIENCE 2023; 3:1113871. [PMID: 38469502 PMCID: PMC10926384 DOI: 10.3389/finsc.2023.1113871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
The function of two autophagy genes, an activating molecule BECN1 regulated autophagy (AMBRA1) and autophagy-related gene 8 (ATG8) in the midgut remodeling of Aedes aegypti was investigated. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis of RNA samples collected from the last instar larvae and pupae showed that these two genes are predominantly expressed during the last 12 h and first 24 h of the last larval and pupal stages, respectively. Stable ecdysteroid analog induced and juvenile hormone (JH) analog suppressed these genes. RNA interference (RNAi) studies showed that the ecdysone-induced transcription factor E93 is required for the expression of these genes. JH-induced transcription factor krüppel homolog 1 (Kr-h1) suppressed the expression of these genes. RNAi-mediated silencing of AMBRA1 and ATG8 blocked midgut remodeling. Histological studies of midguts from insects at 48 h after ecdysis to the final larval stage and 12 h after ecdysis to the pupal stage showed that ATG gene knockdown blocked midgut remodeling. AMBRA1 and ATG8 double-stranded (dsRNA)-treated insects retained larval midgut cells and died during the pupal stage. Together, these results demonstrate that ecdysteroid induction of ATG genes initiates autophagy programmed cell death during midgut remodeling. JH inhibits midgut remodeling during metamorphosis by interfering with the expression of ATG genes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Subba Reddy Palli
- Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
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Samantsidis GR, Fotiadou M, Tzavellas S, Geibel S, Nauen R, Swevers L, Denecke S, Vontas J. Functional characterization of putative ecdysone transporters in lepidopteran pests. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 151:103830. [PMID: 36064128 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2022.103830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The insect steroid hormone ecdysone plays a critical role in insect development. Several recent studies have shown that ecdysone enters cells through Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptides (OATPs) in insects such as flies and mosquitoes. However, the conservation of this mechanism across other arthropods and the role of this transporter in canonical ecdysone pathways are less well studied. Herein we functionally characterized the putative ecdysone importer (EcI) from two major agricultural moth pests: Helicoverpa armigera (cotton bollworm) and Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm). Phylogenetic analysis of OATP transporters across the superphylum Ecdysozoa revealed that EcI likely appeared only at the root of the arthropod lineage. Partial disruption of EcI in S. frugiperda decreased embryo hatching rate and larval survival, suggesting that this gene is essential for development in vivo. Depletion and re-expression of EcI in the lepidoptera cell line RP-HzGUT-AW1(MG) demonstrated this protein's ability to control ecdysone mediated signaling in gene regulation, its role in ecdysone mediated cell death, and its sensitivity to rifampicin, a well-known organic anion transporter inhibitor. Overall, this work sheds light on ecdysone uptake mechanisms across insect species and broadens our knowledge of the physiological roles of OATPs in the transportation of endogenous substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- George-Rafael Samantsidis
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, Heraklion, Greece; Department of Biology, University of Crete, Vassilika Vouton, 71409, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Melina Fotiadou
- Department of Biology, University of Crete, Vassilika Vouton, 71409, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Savvas Tzavellas
- Department of Biology, University of Crete, Vassilika Vouton, 71409, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Sven Geibel
- R&D Pest Control, Bayer AG, Crop Science Division, Monheim, Germany
| | - Ralf Nauen
- R&D Pest Control, Bayer AG, Crop Science Division, Monheim, Germany
| | - Luc Swevers
- Insect Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology, National Centre for Scientific Research Demokritos, Institute of Biosciences and Applications, 15310, Athens, Greece
| | - Shane Denecke
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, Heraklion, Greece; Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States.
| | - John Vontas
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, Heraklion, Greece; Pesticide Science Lab, Department of Crop Science, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece.
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Ye C, Feng Y, Yu F, Jiao Q, Wu J, Ye Z, Zhang P, Sun C, Pang K, Hao P, Yu X. RNAi-mediated silencing of the autophagy-related gene NlATG3 inhibits survival and fecundity of the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2021; 77:4658-4668. [PMID: 34092014 DOI: 10.1002/ps.6507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens, is a serious insect pest of rice. Autophagy and its related gene ATG3 play multiple roles in insects. However, information about the functions of ATG3 in BPH (NlATG3) is unavailable, and its potential as a target for pest control remains unclear. RESULTS RT-qPCR results showed a relatively low expression of NlATG3 in 1st-4th-instar nymphs, which increased through 9-day-old adults. The expression of NlATG3 increased continuously in 1-day-old through 5-day-old eggs, whereas it decreased thereafter. The mRNA level of NlATG3 was markedly higher in the ovary (1.16) and head (1.00) compared to the rest body parts of BPH adults. Injecting nymphs with dsNlATG3 at doses from 62.5 to 250 ng per insect had strong lethal effect upon them. For the 5th-instar nymphs, all individuals died within 5 days after receiving the dsNlATG3, and importantly, no individual successfully molted. Transmission electron microscopy revealed the new cuticle of nymphs injected with dsNlATG3 became loose and curved, which is clearly different from that of the control. Correspondingly, the obvious vesicles in epidermal cells disappeared after dsNlATG3-treatment. RNAi of NlATG3 significantly reduced the total number of eggs laid per female as well as the eggs' hatchability, especially in the dsNlATG3♀ × dsGFP♂ group, whose total number of eggs laid per female largely decreased by 80.4%, and whose eggs' hatchability was significantly reduced from 95.7% to zero, when compared with the control (dsGFP♀ × dsGFP♂). CONCLUSION NlATG3 is a promising target for developing RNAi-based insect management strategies. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenglong Ye
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yalin Feng
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Feifei Yu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiqi Jiao
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiangen Wu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zihong Ye
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Pengjun Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chuanxin Sun
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Kun Pang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Peiying Hao
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoping Yu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China
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Xu T, Jiang X, Denton D, Kumar S. Ecdysone controlled cell and tissue deletion. Cell Death Differ 2020; 27:1-14. [PMID: 31745213 PMCID: PMC7205961 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-019-0456-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The removal of superfluous and unwanted cells is a critical part of animal development. In insects the steroid hormone ecdysone, the focus of this review, is an essential regulator of developmental transitions, including molting and metamorphosis. Like other steroid hormones, ecdysone works via nuclear hormone receptors to direct spatial and temporal regulation of gene transcription including genes required for cell death. During insect metamorphosis, pulses of ecdysone orchestrate the deletion of obsolete larval tissues, including the larval salivary glands and the midgut. In this review we discuss the molecular machinery and mechanisms of ecdysone-dependent cell and tissue removal, with a focus on studies in Drosophila and Lepidopteran insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianqi Xu
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia and SA Pathology, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
| | - Xin Jiang
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia and SA Pathology, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
| | - Donna Denton
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia and SA Pathology, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
| | - Sharad Kumar
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia and SA Pathology, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia.
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Tettamanti G, Casartelli M. Cell death during complete metamorphosis. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20190065. [PMID: 31438818 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, cell death is essential for reshaping or removing larval tissues and organs, thus contributing to formation of the adult's body structure. In the last few decades, the study of metamorphosis in Lepidoptera and Diptera has provided broad information on the tissue remodelling processes that occur during larva-pupa-adult transition and made it possible to unravel the underlying regulatory pathways. This review summarizes recent knowledge on cell death mechanisms in Lepidoptera and other holometabolous insects, highlighting similarities and differences with Drosophila melanogaster, and discusses the role of apoptosis and autophagy in this developmental setting. This article is part of the theme issue 'The evolution of complete metamorphosis'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Tettamanti
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy
| | - Morena Casartelli
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy
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The digestive system of the adult Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): morphological features and functional properties. Cell Tissue Res 2019; 378:221-238. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-019-03025-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Tettamanti G, Carata E, Montali A, Dini L, Fimia GM. Autophagy in development and regeneration: role in tissue remodelling and cell survival. EUROPEAN ZOOLOGICAL JOURNAL 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/24750263.2019.1601271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- G. Tettamanti
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - E. Carata
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | - A. Montali
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - L. Dini
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology Charles Darwin, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - G. M. Fimia
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
- Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, National Institute for Infectious Diseases IRCCS “Lazzaro Spallanzani”, Rome, Italy
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De Loof A, Schoofs L. Intraluminal Farnesol and Farnesal in the Mealworm's Alimentary Canal: An Unusual Storage Site Uncovering Hidden Eukaryote Ca 2+-Homeostasis-Dependent "Golgicrine" Activities. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10:885. [PMID: 31920991 PMCID: PMC6930878 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Farnesol, the sesquiterpenoid precursor of the six presently known insect juvenile hormones (JHs) was for the first time chemically identified in 1961, not in JH synthesizing glands or whole body extracts, but in excrements of the mealworm Tenebrio molitor. This finding was thought to be irrelevant and remained unexplored. In 1970, it was reported that the fall to zero of the JH titer in both prediapausing adults and in last instar larvae of the Colorado potato beetle causes severe malfunctioning of the Golgi system in the fat body, among various other effects. This endomembrane system in the cytoplasm resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, and endocytic pathways and is required for the processing of secretory proteins. Why the Golgi needs farnesol-like endogenous sesquiterpenoids (FLS) for its proper functioning has also never been further investigated. In 1999, farnesol was found to be a natural endogenous ligand for particular types of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in mammalian cells, a finding that also remained undervalued. Only since 2014 more attention has been paid to the functional research of the "noble unknown" farnesol, in particular to its Ca2+-homeostasis-related juvenilizing and anti-apoptotic activities. Here, we introduce the term "Golgicrine activity" that addresses the secretory activity of the RER-Golgi system from its role in Ca2+-homeostasis rather than from its conventional role in mere protein secretion. Golgicrine activity attributes the so far forgotten role of farnesol-like sesquiterpenoids in proper Golgi functioning, and unites the endocrine, exocrine and enterocrine functions of these sesquiterpenoids. This out of the box view may open novel perspectives for the better understanding of particular inflammatory bowel diseases and of neurodegenerative diseases as well, because the early initiation of Alzheimer's disease may possibly result from malfunctioning of the mevalonate-farnesol-cholesterol biosynthetic pathway and thus might be a farnesol- and Ca2+-homeostasis-dependent Golgicrine issue.
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Denton D, Kumar S. Autophagy-dependent cell death. Cell Death Differ 2018; 26:605-616. [PMID: 30568239 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-018-0252-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 479] [Impact Index Per Article: 79.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2018] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy-dependent cell death can be defined as cell demise that has a strict requirement of autophagy. Although autophagy often accompanies cell death following many toxic insults, the requirement of autophagic machinery for cell death execution, as established through specific genetic or chemical inhibition of the process, is highly contextual. During animal development, perhaps the best validated model of autophagy-dependent cell death is the degradation of the larval midgut during larval-pupal metamorphosis, where a number of key autophagy genes are required for the removal of the tissues. Surprisingly though, even in the midgut, not all of the 'canonical' autophagic machinery appears to be required. In other organisms and cancer cells many variations of autophagy-dependent cell death are apparent, pointing to the lack of a unifying cell death pathway. It is thus possible that components of the autophagy machinery are selectively utilised or repurposed for this type of cell death. In this review, we discuss examples of cell death that utilise autophagy machinery (or part thereof), the current knowledge of the complexity of autophagy-dependent cellular demise and the potential mechanisms and regulatory pathways involved in such cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donna Denton
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia and SA Pathology, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia.
| | - Sharad Kumar
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia and SA Pathology, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia.
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