1
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Cheng S, Wang H, Kang X, Zhang H. Immunotherapy Innovations in the Fight against Osteosarcoma: Emerging Strategies and Promising Progress. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:251. [PMID: 38399305 PMCID: PMC10892906 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16020251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Immunosuppressive elements within the tumor microenvironment are the primary drivers of tumorigenesis and malignant advancement. The presence, as well as the crosstalk between myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), osteosarcoma-associated macrophages (OS-Ms), regulatory T cells (Tregs), and endothelial cells (ECs) with osteosarcoma cells cause the poor prognosis of OS. In addition, the consequent immunosuppressive factors favor the loss of treatment potential. Nanoparticles offer a means to dynamically and locally manipulate immuno-nanoparticles, which present a promising strategy for transforming OS-TME. Additionally, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) technology is effective in combating OS. This review summarizes the essential mechanisms of immunosuppressive cells in the OS-TME and the current immune-associated strategies. The last part highlights the limitations of existing therapies and offers insights into future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigao Cheng
- Laboratory of Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering, Orthopedic Research Institute, Department of Orthopedics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Department of Orthopedics, Hunan Loudi Central Hospital, Loudi 417000, China
| | - Huiyuan Wang
- Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xuejia Kang
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison College of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Hui Zhang
- Laboratory of Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering, Orthopedic Research Institute, Department of Orthopedics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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2
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Duerr R, Crosse KM, Valero-Jimenez AM, Dittmann M. SARS-CoV-2 Portrayed against HIV: Contrary Viral Strategies in Similar Disguise. Microorganisms 2021; 9:1389. [PMID: 34198973 PMCID: PMC8307803 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9071389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 and HIV are zoonotic viruses that rapidly reached pandemic scale, causing global losses and fear. The COVID-19 and AIDS pandemics ignited massive efforts worldwide to develop antiviral strategies and characterize viral architectures, biological and immunological properties, and clinical outcomes. Although both viruses have a comparable appearance as enveloped viruses with positive-stranded RNA and envelope spikes mediating cellular entry, the entry process, downstream biological and immunological pathways, clinical outcomes, and disease courses are strikingly different. This review provides a systemic comparison of both viruses' structural and functional characteristics, delineating their distinct strategies for efficient spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Duerr
- Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA; (K.M.C.); (A.M.V.-J.); (M.D.)
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3
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Immune Dysregulation in Myocardial Fibrosis, Steatosis, and Heart Failure: Current Insights from HIV and the General Population. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2021; 18:63-72. [PMID: 33433816 DOI: 10.1007/s11904-020-00536-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW HIV is an independent risk factor for heart failure (HF). Cardiac imaging studies in people with HIV (PWH) have identified myocardial pathologies, namely fibrosis and steatosis, that likely contribute to the higher risk of HF. In this review, we survey existing epidemiological, clinical, and mechanistic literature to identify potential pathways that may contribute to the burden of myocardial fibrosis and steatosis among PWH. RECENT FINDINGS Multiple cohort studies over the past 20 years have demonstrated a roughly 2-fold higher risk of incident HF in PWH, as well as a disproportionate burden of myocardial fibrosis and steatosis in PWH without HF. Both myocardial fibrosis and steatosis are known contributors to HF in adults without HIV. Pathways involving the NLRP3 inflammasome, TGF-β1, and adipocyte dysfunction are known to play a crucial role in the development of myocardial fibrosis and steatosis. Upregulation of these pathways in HIV due to direct effects of viral proteins, persistent immune dysregulation, gut epithelial breakdown and dysbiosis, and toxicities from antiretroviral therapy may contribute to myocardial dysfunction in HIV. Understanding these pathways may lead to more precise diagnostic and therapeutic targets to curb HF in PWH. During the past three decades, observational and mechanistic studies have provided important insights into risk factors and pathways that may contribute to the increased HF risk in PWH. Future work is needed to characterize these pathways more precisely in mechanistic studies of PWH, with the goal of ultimately deriving valuable targets for prevention, early diagnosis, and treatment of HF in PWH.
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4
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Peng X, Ouyang J, Isnard S, Lin J, Fombuena B, Zhu B, Routy JP. Sharing CD4+ T Cell Loss: When COVID-19 and HIV Collide on Immune System. Front Immunol 2020; 11:596631. [PMID: 33384690 PMCID: PMC7770166 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.596631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
COVID-19 is a distinctive infection characterized by elevated inter-human transmission and presenting from absence of symptoms to severe cytokine storm that can lead to dismal prognosis. Like for HIV, lymphopenia and drastic reduction of CD4+ T cell counts in COVID-19 patients have been linked with poor clinical outcome. As CD4+ T cells play a critical role in orchestrating responses against viral infections, important lessons can be drawn by comparing T cell response in COVID-19 and in HIV infection and by studying HIV-infected patients who became infected by SARS-CoV-2. We critically reviewed host characteristics and hyper-inflammatory response in these two viral infections to have a better insight on the large difference in clinical outcome in persons being infected by SARS-CoV-2. The better understanding of mechanism of T cell dysfunction will contribute to the development of targeted therapy against severe COVID-19 and will help to rationally design vaccine involving T cell response for the long-term control of viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaorong Peng
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Chronic Viral Illness Service, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jing Ouyang
- Chongqing Public Health Medical Center, Chongqing, China
| | - Stéphane Isnard
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Chronic Viral Illness Service, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,CIHR Canadian HIV Trials Network, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - John Lin
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Chronic Viral Illness Service, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Brandon Fombuena
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Chronic Viral Illness Service, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Biao Zhu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jean-Pierre Routy
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Chronic Viral Illness Service, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Division of Hematology, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada
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5
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Roider J, Ngoepe A, Muenchhoff M, Adland E, Groll A, Ndung'u T, Kløverpris H, Goulder P, Leslie A. Increased Regulatory T-Cell Activity and Enhanced T-Cell Homeostatic Signaling in Slow Progressing HIV-infected Children. Front Immunol 2019; 10:213. [PMID: 30809229 PMCID: PMC6379343 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pediatric slow progressors (PSP) are rare ART-naïve, HIV-infected children who maintain high CD4 T-cell counts and low immune activation despite persistently high viral loads. Using a well-defined cohort of PSP, we investigated the role of regulatory T-cells (TREG) and of IL-7 homeostatic signaling in maintaining normal-for-age CD4 counts in these individuals. Compared to children with progressive disease, PSP had greater absolute numbers of TREG, skewed toward functionally suppressive phenotypes. As with immune activation, overall T-cell proliferation was lower in PSP, but was uniquely higher in central memory TREG (CM TREG), indicating active engagement of this subset. Furthermore, PSP secreted higher levels of the immunosuppressive cytokine IL-10 than children who progressed. The frequency of suppressive TREG, CM TREG proliferation, and IL-10 production were all lower in PSP who go on to progress at a later time-point, supporting the importance of an active TREG response in preventing disease progression. In addition, we find that IL-7 homeostatic signaling is enhanced in PSP, both through preserved surface IL-7receptor (CD127) expression on central memory T-cells and increased plasma levels of soluble IL-7receptor, which enhances the bioactivity of IL-7. Combined analysis, using a LASSO modeling approach, indicates that both TREG activity and homeostatic T-cell signaling make independent contributions to the preservation of CD4 T-cells in HIV-infected children. Together, these data demonstrate that maintenance of normal-for-age CD4 counts in PSP is an active process, which requires both suppression of immune activation through functional TREG, and enhanced T-cell homeostatic signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Roider
- Africa Health Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Department of Paediatrics, Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Medizinische Klinik IV, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Abigail Ngoepe
- Africa Health Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Maximilian Muenchhoff
- Department of Virology, Max von Pettenkofer Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Emily Adland
- Department of Paediatrics, Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Andreas Groll
- Faculty of Statistics, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Thumbi Ndung'u
- Africa Health Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Henrik Kløverpris
- Africa Health Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Department of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Philip Goulder
- Department of Paediatrics, Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Alasdair Leslie
- Africa Health Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Department of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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6
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Filaci G, Fenoglio D, Taramasso L, Indiveri F, Di Biagio A. Rationale for an Association Between PD1 Checkpoint Inhibition and Therapeutic Vaccination Against HIV. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2447. [PMID: 30459765 PMCID: PMC6232923 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of HIV immunodeficiency is mainly dependent on the cytopatic effects exerted by the virus against infected CD4+ T cells. However, CD4+ T cell loss cannot be the only pathogenic factor since severe opportunistic infections may develop in HIV infected patients with normal CD4+ T cell counts and since the recent START study indicated that absolute CD4+ T cell counts are not predictive for AIDS and non-AIDS events. Recently our group demonstrated that CD8+CD28-CD127lowCD39+ regulatory T lymphocytes, previously found highly concentrated within tumor microenvironment, circulate with elevated frequency in the peripheral blood of HIV infected patients. Here, we show that these cells, that at least in part are HIV specific, express the PD1 immune checkpoint. Based on these evidences and considerations, in this Perspective article we speculate on the opportunity to treat HIV infected patients with anti-PD1 immune checkpoint inhibitors as a way to counteract the T regulatory cell compartment and to unleash virus-specific immune responses. In order to potentiate the immune responses against HIV we also propose the potential utility to associate immune checkpoint inhibition with HIV-specific therapeutic vaccination, reminiscent of what currently applied in oncologic protocols. We suggest that such an innovative strategy could permit drug-sparing regimens and, perhaps, lead to eradication of the infection in some patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilberto Filaci
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy.,Biotherapy Unit, Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Daniela Fenoglio
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy.,Biotherapy Unit, Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Lucia Taramasso
- Infectious Disease Unit, Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Francesco Indiveri
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Antonio Di Biagio
- Infectious Disease Unit, Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
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7
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Zhang M, Robinson TO, Duverger A, Kutsch O, Heath SL, Cron RQ. Regulatory CD4 T cells inhibit HIV-1 expression of other CD4 T cell subsets via interactions with cell surface regulatory proteins. Virology 2018; 516:21-29. [PMID: 29324358 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.12.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
During chronic HIV-1 infection, regulatory CD4 T cells (Tregs) frequently represent the largest subpopulation of CD4 T cell subsets, implying relative resistant to HIV-1. When HIV-1 infection of CD4 T cells was explored in vitro and ex vivo from patient samples, Tregs possessed lower levels of HIV-1 DNA and RNA in comparison with conventional effector and memory CD4 T cells. Moreover, Tregs suppressed HIV-1 expression in other CD4 T cells in an in vitro co-culture system. This suppression was mediated in part via multiple inhibitory surface proteins expressed on Tregs. Antibody blockade of CTLA-4, PD-1, and GARP on Tregs resulted in increased HIV-1 DNA integration and mRNA expression in neighboring CD4 T cells. Moreover, antibody blockade of Tregs inhibitory proteins resulted in increased HIV-1 LTR transcription in co-cultured CD4 T cells. Thus, Tregs inhibit HIV-1 infection of other CD4 T cell subsets via interactions with inhibitory cell surface proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingce Zhang
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
| | - Tanya O Robinson
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
| | - Alexandra Duverger
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
| | - Olaf Kutsch
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
| | - Sonya L Heath
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
| | - Randy Q Cron
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
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8
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Sic H, Speletas M, Cornacchione V, Seidl M, Beibel M, Linghu B, Yang F, Sevdali E, Germenis AE, Oakeley EJ, Vangrevelinghe E, Sailer AW, Traggiai E, Gram H, Eibel H. An Activating Janus Kinase-3 Mutation Is Associated with Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Antigen-4-Dependent Immune Dysregulation Syndrome. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1824. [PMID: 29375547 PMCID: PMC5770691 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous mutations in the cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) are associated with lymphadenopathy, autoimmunity, immune dysregulation, and hypogammaglobulinemia in about 70% of the carriers. So far, the incomplete penetrance of CTLA-4 haploinsufficiency has been attributed to unknown genetic modifiers, epigenetic changes, or environmental effects. We sought to identify potential genetic modifiers in a family with differential clinical penetrance of CTLA-4 haploinsufficiency. Here, we report on a rare heterozygous gain-of-function mutation in Janus kinase-3 (JAK3) (p.R840C), which is associated with the clinical manifestation of CTLA-4 haploinsufficiency in a patient carrying a novel loss-of-function mutation in CTLA-4 (p.Y139C). While the asymptomatic parents carry either the CTLA-4 mutation or the JAK3 variant, their son has inherited both heterozygous mutations and suffers from hypogammaglobulinemia combined with autoimmunity and lymphoid hyperplasia. Although the patient's lymph node and spleen contained many hyperplastic germinal centers with follicular helper T (TFH) cells and immunoglobulin (Ig) G-positive B cells, plasma cell, and memory B cell development was impaired. CXCR5+PD-1+TIGIT+ TFH cells contributed to a large part of circulating T cells, but they produced only very low amounts of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, and IL-21 required for the development of memory B cells and plasma cells. We, therefore, suggest that the combination of the loss-of-function mutation in CTLA-4 with the gain-of-function mutation in JAK3 directs the differentiation of CD4 T cells into dysfunctional TFH cells supporting the development of lymphadenopathy, hypogammaglobulinemia, and immunodeficiency. Thus, the combination of rare genetic heterozygous variants that remain clinically unnoticed individually may lead to T cell hyperactivity, impaired memory B cell, and plasma cell development resulting finally in combined immunodeficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heiko Sic
- Novartis Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthaios Speletas
- Department of Immunology and Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Biopolis, Larissa, Greece
| | | | - Maximillian Seidl
- Institute for Surgical Pathology, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Martin Beibel
- Novartis Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Bolan Linghu
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Fan Yang
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Eirini Sevdali
- Department of Immunology and Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Biopolis, Larissa, Greece
| | - Anastasios E Germenis
- Department of Immunology and Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Biopolis, Larissa, Greece
| | | | | | | | | | - Hermann Gram
- Novartis Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Hermann Eibel
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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9
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Fenoglio D, Dentone C, Signori A, Di Biagio A, Parodi A, Kalli F, Nasi G, Curto M, Cenderello G, De Leo P, Bartolacci V, Orofino G, Nicolini LA, Taramasso L, Fiorillo E, Orrù V, Traverso P, Bruzzone B, Ivaldi F, Mantia E, Guerra M, Negrini S, Giacomini M, Bhagani S, Filaci G. CD8 +CD28 -CD127 loCD39 + regulatory T-cell expansion: A new possible pathogenic mechanism for HIV infection? J Allergy Clin Immunol 2017; 141:2220-2233.e4. [PMID: 29103633 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2017.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Revised: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND HIV-associated immunodeficiency is related to loss of CD4+ T cells. This mechanism does not explain certain manifestations of HIV disease, such as immunodeficiency events in patients with greater than 500 CD4+ T cells/μL. CD8+CD28-CD127loCD39+ T cells are regulatory T (Treg) lymphocytes that are highly concentrated within the tumor microenvironment and never analyzed in the circulation of HIV-infected patients. OBJECTIVES We sought to analyze the frequency of CD8+CD28-CD127loCD39+ Treg cells in the circulation of HIV-infected patients. METHODS The frequency of circulating CD8+CD28-CD127loCD39+ Treg cells was analyzed and correlated with viral load and CD4+ T-cell counts/percentages in 93 HIV-1-infected patients subdivided as follows: naive (n = 63), elite controllers (n = 19), long-term nonprogressors (n = 7), and HIV-infected patients affected by tumor (n = 4). The same analyses were performed in HIV-negative patients with cancer (n = 53), hepatitis C virus-infected patients (n = 17), and healthy donors (n = 173). RESULTS HIV-infected patients had increased circulating levels of functional CD8+CD28-CD127loCD39+ Treg cells. These cells showed antigen specificity against HIV proteins. Their frequency after antiretroviral therapy (ART) correlated with HIV viremia, CD4+ T-cell counts, and immune activation markers, suggesting their pathogenic involvement in AIDS- or non-AIDS-related complications. Their increase after initiation of ART heralded a lack of virologic or clinical response, and hence their monitoring is clinically relevant. CONCLUSION HIV infection induces remarkable expansion of CD8+CD28-CD127loCD39+ Treg cells, the frequency of which correlates with both clinical disease and signs of chronic immune cell activation. Monitoring their frequency in the circulation is a new marker of response to ART when effects on viremia and clinical response are not met.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Fenoglio
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria San Martino, IST-Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Genoa, Italy
| | - Chiara Dentone
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; Infectious Diseases Department, Sanremo Hospital, Imperia, Italy
| | - Alessio Signori
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Antonio Di Biagio
- Infectious Disease Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria San Martino, IST-Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Genoa, Italy
| | - Alessia Parodi
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Francesca Kalli
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Giorgia Nasi
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Monica Curto
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Giancarlo Orofino
- Infectious Diseases Department, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, Turin, Italy
| | - Laura Ambra Nicolini
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; Infectious Disease Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria San Martino, IST-Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Genoa, Italy
| | - Lucia Taramasso
- Infectious Disease Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria San Martino, IST-Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Genoa, Italy
| | - Edoardo Fiorillo
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Sede Secondaria IRGB, Lanusei, Italy
| | - Valeria Orrù
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Sede Secondaria IRGB, Lanusei, Italy
| | - Paolo Traverso
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria San Martino, IST-Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Genoa, Italy; Department of Surgical Science and Integrated Diagnostics, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Bianca Bruzzone
- Hygiene Unit, Infectious Disease Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria San Martino, IST-Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Genoa, Italy
| | - Federico Ivaldi
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Eugenio Mantia
- Infectious Diseases Department, SS Antonio, Biagio, Cesare Arrigo Hospital, Alessandria, Italy
| | - Michele Guerra
- Infectious Diseases Department, Sant'Andrea Hospital, La Spezia, Italy
| | - Simone Negrini
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria San Martino, IST-Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Genoa, Italy
| | - Mauro Giacomini
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; Department of Informatics, Bioengineering, Robotic and System Engineering, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Sanjay Bhagani
- Department of Infectious Diseases/HIV Medicine, Royal Free Hospital, National Health Service, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gilberto Filaci
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria San Martino, IST-Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Genoa, Italy.
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10
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Khan S, Telwatte S, Trapecar M, Yukl S, Sanjabi S. Differentiating Immune Cell Targets in Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue for HIV Cure. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2017; 33:S40-S58. [PMID: 28882067 PMCID: PMC5685216 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2017.0153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The single greatest challenge to an HIV cure is the persistence of latently infected cells containing inducible, replication-competent proviral genomes, which constitute only a small fraction of total or infected cells in the body. Although resting CD4+ T cells in the blood are a well-known source of viral rebound, more than 90% of the body's lymphocytes reside elsewhere. Many are in gut tissue, where HIV DNA levels per million CD4+ T cells are considerably higher than in the blood. Despite the significant contribution of gut tissue to viral replication and persistence, little is known about the cell types that support persistence of HIV in the gut; importantly, T cells in the gut have phenotypic, functional, and survival properties that are distinct from T cells in other tissues. The mechanisms by which latency is established and maintained will likely depend on the location and cytokine milieu surrounding the latently infected cells in each compartment. Therefore, successful HIV cure strategies require identification and characterization of the exact cell types that support viral persistence, particularly in the gut. In this review, we describe the seeding of the latent HIV reservoir in the gut mucosa; highlight the evidence for compartmentalization and depletion of T cells; summarize the immunologic consequences of HIV infection within the gut milieu; propose how the damaged gut environment may promote the latent HIV reservoir; and explore several immune cell targets in the gut and their place on the path toward HIV cure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahzada Khan
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California
| | - Sushama Telwatte
- San Francisco VA Health Care System and University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California
| | - Martin Trapecar
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California
| | - Steven Yukl
- San Francisco VA Health Care System and University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California
| | - Shomyseh Sanjabi
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
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11
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Zaunders J, Xu Y, Kent SJ, Koelsch KK, Kelleher AD. Divergent Expression of CXCR5 and CCR5 on CD4 + T Cells and the Paradoxical Accumulation of T Follicular Helper Cells during HIV Infection. Front Immunol 2017; 8:495. [PMID: 28553284 PMCID: PMC5427074 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral infection sets in motion a cascade of immune responses, including both CXCR5+CD4+ T follicular helper (Tfh) cells that regulate humoral immunity and CCR5+CD4+ T cells that mediate cell-mediated immunity. In peripheral blood mononuclear cells, the majority of memory CD4+ T cells appear to fall into either of these two lineages, CCR5−CXCR5+ or CCR5+CXCR5−. Very high titers of anti-HIV IgG antibodies are a hallmark of infection, strongly suggesting that there is significant HIV-specific CD4+ T cell help to HIV-specific B cells. We now know that characteristic increases in germinal centers (GC) in lymphoid tissue (LT) during SIV and HIV-1 infections are associated with an increase in CXCR5+PD-1high Tfh, which expand to a large proportion of memory CD4+ T cells in LT, and are presumably specific for SIV or HIV epitopes. Macaque Tfh normally express very little CCR5, yet are infected by CCR5-using SIV, which may occur mainly through infection of a subset of PD-1intermediateCCR5+Bcl-6+ pre-Tfh cells. In contrast, in human LT, a subset of PD-1high Tfh appears to express low levels of CCR5, as measured by flow cytometry, and this may also contribute to the high rate of infection of Tfh. Also, we have found, by assessing fine-needle biopsies of LT, that increases in Tfh and GC B cells in HIV infection are not completely normalized by antiretroviral therapy (ART), suggesting a possible long-lasting reservoir of infected Tfh. In contrast to the increase of CXCR5+ Tfh, there is no accumulation of proliferating CCR5+ CD4 T HIV Gag-specific cells in peripheral blood that make IFN-γ. Altogether, CXCR5+CCR5− CD4 T cells that regulate humoral immunity are allowed greater freedom to operate and expand during HIV-1 infection, but at the same time can contain HIV DNA at levels at least as high as in other CD4 subsets. We argue that early ART including a CCR5 blocker may directly reduce the infected Tfh reservoir in LT and also interrupt cycles of antibody pressure driving virus mutation and additional GC responses to resulting neoantigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Zaunders
- St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,The Kirby Institute, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Yin Xu
- The Kirby Institute, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Stephen J Kent
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kersten K Koelsch
- The Kirby Institute, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Anthony D Kelleher
- St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,The Kirby Institute, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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12
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Thornhill JP, Fidler S, Klenerman P, Frater J, Phetsouphanh C. The Role of CD4+ T Follicular Helper Cells in HIV Infection: From the Germinal Center to the Periphery. Front Immunol 2017; 8:46. [PMID: 28194154 PMCID: PMC5277018 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
T follicular helper cells (TFh) are key components of the adaptive immune system; they are primarily found in germinal centers (GCs) where their interaction with B cells supports humoral immune responses and efficient antibody production. They are defined by the expression of CXC receptor 5, program death-1, ICOS, and secretion of IL-21. Their differentiation is regulated by B-cell lymphoma 6. The relationship and function of circulating TFh to bona fide TFh resident in the GC is much debated. HIV infection impacts the TFh response with evidence of aberrant TFh function observed in acute and chronic infection. Effective TFh responses are associated with the development of broadly neutralizing antibody responses to HIV and may be important for viral control. In addition, TFh are preferentially infected and act as a key reservoir for latent HIV infection. This review explores recent developments in our understanding of TFh differentiation, regulation, function, and the relationship between cTFh and those in GCs, and the complex interaction between TFh and HIV infection.
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13
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Mann J, Pasternak AO, Chahroudi A, Singh JA, Ross AL. The latest science from the IAS Towards an HIV Cure Symposium: 16-17 July 2016, Durban, South Africa. J Virus Erad 2016; 2:235-241. [PMID: 27781107 PMCID: PMC5075352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn Mann
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme,
University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Durban,
South Africa
| | - Alexander O Pasternak
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology,
Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam,
the Netherlands
| | - Ann Chahroudi
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine,
Atlanta,
Georgia,
USA
| | | | - Anna Laura Ross
- International and Scientific Relations, ANRS,
Paris,
France,Corresponding author: Anna Laura Ross,
International and Scientific Relations, ANRS,
101 rue de Tolbiac,
75013Paris,
France
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15
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Macura SL, Lathrop MJ, Gui J, Doncel GF, Asin SN, Rollenhagen C. Blocking CXCL9 Decreases HIV-1 Replication and Enhances the Activity of Prophylactic Antiretrovirals in Human Cervical Tissues. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2016; 71:474-82. [PMID: 26545124 PMCID: PMC4788559 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000000891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The interferon-gamma-induced chemokine CXCL9 is expressed in a wide range of inflammatory conditions including those affecting the female genital tract. CXCL9 promotes immune cell recruitment, activation, and proliferation. The role of CXCL9 in modulating HIV-1 infection of cervicovaginal tissues, a main portal of viral entry, however, has not been established. We report a link between CXCL9 and HIV-1 replication in human cervical tissues and propose CXCL9 as a potential target to enhance the anti-HIV-1 activity of prophylactic antiretrovirals. DESIGN Using ex vivo infection of human cervical tissues as a model of mucosal HIV-1 acquisition, we described the effect of CXCL9 neutralization on HIV-1 gene expression and mucosal CD4 T-cell activation. The anti-HIV-1 activity of tenofovir, the leading mucosal pre-exposure prophylactic microbicide, alone or in combination with CXCL9 neutralization was also studied. METHODS HIV-1 replication was evaluated by p24 ELISA. HIV-1 DNA and RNA, and CD4, CCR5, and CD38 transcription were evaluated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Frequency of activated cervical CD4 T cells was quantified using fluorescence-activated cell sorting. RESULTS Antibody blocking of CXCL9 reduced HIV-1 replication by decreasing mucosal CD4 T-cell activation. CXCL9 neutralization in combination with suboptimal concentrations of tenofovir, possibly present in the cervicovaginal tissues of women using the drug inconsistently, demonstrated an earlier and greater decrease in HIV-1 replication compared with tissues treated with tenofovir alone. CONCLUSIONS CXCL9 neutralization reduces HIV-1 replication and may be an effective target to enhance the efficacy of prophylactic antiretrovirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherrill L. Macura
- Research Service, V. A. Medical Center, White River Junction, VT
- Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Food and Drug Administration, Office of Device Evaluation, Silver Spring, MD
| | - Melissa J. Lathrop
- Research Service, V. A. Medical Center, White River Junction, VT
- Division of Select Agents and Toxins, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
| | - Jiang Gui
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH
| | | | - Susana N. Asin
- Research Service, V. A. Medical Center, White River Junction, VT
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH; and
| | - Christiane Rollenhagen
- Research Service, V. A. Medical Center, White River Junction, VT
- Department of Medicine, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH
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16
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The effect of cellular isolation and cryopreservation on the expression of markers identifying subsets of regulatory T cells. J Immunol Methods 2016; 431:31-7. [PMID: 26855370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2016.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Revised: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The role of CD4(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) and their subsets during HIV infection is controversial. Cryopreserved peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) are an important source for assessing number and function of Tregs. However, it is unknown if PBMC isolation and cryopreservation affect the expression of CD120b and CD39, markers that identify specific subsets of Tregs. METHODS HIV-uninfected (HIV-) and -infected (HIV+) men were randomly selected from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). Percentages of CD120b(+) and CD39(+) Tregs measured by flow cytometry in whole blood and in corresponding fresh and cryopreserved PBMC were compared. RESULTS Percentages of CD120b(+) Tregs were significantly lower in a) fresh PBMC relative to whole blood, and b) freshly thawed frozen PBMC relative to fresh PBMC when the recovery of viable cryopreserved cells was low. When present, low expression of CD120b in frozen PBMC was reversible by 4h of in vitro culture. In contrast, expression of CD39 on Tregs was not affected by isolation and/or cryopreservation of PBMC, or by relative recovery of cryopreserved PBMC. These findings were unaffected by the HIV status of the donor. CONCLUSION The data suggest that percentages of CD120b(+) Tregs and CD39(+) Tregs can be validly measured in either whole blood or PBMC (fresh and frozen) in HIV- and HIV+ men. However, for measurement of CD120b(+) Tregs one type of sample should be used consistently within a given study, and thawed frozen cells may require in vitro culture if recovery of viable cells is low.
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17
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Jia K, An L, Wang F, Shi L, Ran X, Wang X, He Z, Chen J. Aggravation of Helicobacter pylori stomach infections in stressed military recruits. J Int Med Res 2016; 44:367-76. [PMID: 26800706 PMCID: PMC5580058 DOI: 10.1177/0300060515593768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective To investigate the effect of military stress on immune response and Helicobacter pylori stomach infections. Methods In this prospective, observational study, the Symptom Checklist-90 questionnaire was completed by military recruits before and following a 3-month basic training programme. H. pylori immunoglobulin (Ig)G levels, C14-urea breath-test values and levels of cortisol, catecholamine, and certain humoral and cellular immune responses were measured before and after the basic training. Results For 60 military recruits, somatization, depression and paranoid ideation scores were significantly increased after, compared with before, basic training. Post-training H. pylori IgG detection revealed three additional cases of H. pylori infection. Post-training C14-urea breath-test values were significantly higher compared with before training – thus suggesting higher levels of H. pylori colonization in the stomach. Post-training cortisol and catecholamine levels were increased, while serum IgG levels were decreased; complement component (C)3 and C4 levels remained unchanged. Post-training CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell percentages and the CD4+/CD8+ ratio were significantly reduced compared with before training. Serum interleukin (IL)-2 levels were lower and IL-10 levels were higher following training and there was a significant decrease in the IL-2/IL-10 ratio. Conclusion Military stress may reduce humoral and cellular immune responses and may aggravate the severity of H. pylori infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keran Jia
- Clinical Laboratory Department, Bethune International Peace Hospital, Hebei, China
| | - Liyun An
- Clinical Laboratory Department, Bethune International Peace Hospital, Hebei, China
| | - Fukun Wang
- Clinical Laboratory Department, Bethune International Peace Hospital, Hebei, China
| | - Lanchun Shi
- Biochemistry Department, Bethune Medical NCO School, Hebei, China
| | - Xiangyang Ran
- Clinical Laboratory Department, Bethune International Peace Hospital, Hebei, China
| | - Xianling Wang
- Clinical Laboratory Department, Bethune International Peace Hospital, Hebei, China
| | - Zhanguo He
- Clinical Laboratory Department, Bethune International Peace Hospital, Hebei, China
| | - Jing Chen
- Clinical Laboratory Department, Bethune International Peace Hospital, Hebei, China
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18
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O'Connor MA, Vella JL, Green WR. Reciprocal relationship of T regulatory cells and monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells in LP-BM5 murine retrovirus-induced immunodeficiency. J Gen Virol 2015; 97:509-522. [PMID: 26253145 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunomodulatory cellular subsets, including myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and T regulatory cells (Tregs), contribute to the immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment and are targets of immunotherapy, but their role in retroviral-associated immunosuppression is less well understood. Due to known crosstalk between Tregs and MDSCs in the tumour microenvironment, and also their hypothesized involvement during human immunodeficiency virus/simian immunodeficiency virus infection, studying the interplay between these immune cells during LP-BM5 retrovirus-induced murine AIDS is of interest. IL-10-producing FoxP3+ Tregs expanded after LP-BM5 infection. Following in vivo adoptive transfer of natural Treg (nTreg)-depleted CD4+T-cells, and subsequent LP-BM5 retroviral infection, enriched monocytic MDSCs (M-MDSCs) from these nTreg-depleted mice displayed altered phenotypic subsets. In addition, M-MDSCs from LP-BM5-infected nTreg-depleted mice exhibited increased suppression of T-cell, but not B-cell, responses, compared with M-MDSCs derived from non-depleted LP-BM5-infected controls. Additionally, LP-BM5-induced M-MDSCs modulated the production of IL-10 by FoxP3+ Tregs in vitro. These collective data highlight in vitro and for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, in vivo reciprocal modulation between retroviral-induced M-MDSCs and Tregs, and may provide insight into the immunotherapeutic targeting of such regulatory cells during retroviral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan A O'Connor
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
| | - Jennifer L Vella
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
| | - William R Green
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA.,Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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19
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Hafler DA, Astier AL. Editorial: T cell regulation by the environment. Front Immunol 2015; 6:229. [PMID: 26029214 PMCID: PMC4429623 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- David A Hafler
- School of Medicine, Yale University , New Haven, CT , USA
| | - Anne L Astier
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research , University of Edinburgh , UK
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