TNF Blockade Maintains an IL-10+ Phenotype in Human Effector CD4+ and CD8+ T Cells

Identification of a transcription factor network regulating anti-TNF mediated IL10 expression in human CD4+ T cells

CD4+ T cells are key players in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs) through the production of inflammatory mediators including tumour necrosis factor (TNF). Anti-TNF therapy has revolutionized the treatment of several IMIDs and we previously demonstrated that in vitro treatment of human CD4+ T cells with anti-TNF promotes anti-inflammatory IL-10 expression in multiple subpopulations of CD4+ T cells. Here we investigated the transcriptional mechanisms underlying the IL-10 induction by TNF-blockade in CD4+ T cells, isolated from PBMCs of healthy volunteers, stimulated in vitro for 3 days with anti-CD3/CD28 mAb in the absence or presence of anti-TNF. After culture, CD45RA+ cells were depleted before performing gene expression profiling and chromatin accessibility analysis. Gene expression analysis of CD45RA-CD4+ T cells showed a distinct anti-TNF specific gene signature of 183 genes (q-value < 0.05). Pathway enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes revealed multiple pathways related to cytokine signalling and regulation of cytokine production; in particular, IL10 was the most upregulated gene by anti-TNF, while the proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines IFNG, IL9, IL22, and CXCL10 were significantly downregulated (q-value < 0.05). Transcription factor motif analysis at the differentially open chromatin regions, after anti-TNF treatment, revealed 58 transcription factor motifs enriched at the IL10 locus. We identified seven transcription factor candidates for the anti-TNF mediated regulation of IL-10, which were either differentially expressed or whose locus was differentially accessible upon anti-TNF treatment. Correlation analysis between the expression of these transcription factors and IL10 suggests a role for MAF, PRDM1, and/or EOMES in regulating IL10 expression in CD4+ T cells upon anti-TNF treatment.

Dynamic Boolean modeling of molecular and cellular interactions in psoriasis predicts drug target candidates

Psoriasis arises from complex interactions between keratinocytes and immune cells, leading to uncontrolled inflammation, immune hyperactivation, and a perturbed keratinocyte life cycle. Despite the availability of drugs for psoriasis management, the disease remains incurable. Treatment response variability calls for new tools and approaches to comprehend the mechanisms underlying disease development. We present a Boolean multiscale population model that captures the dynamics of cell-specific phenotypes in psoriasis, integrating discrete logical formalism and population dynamics simulations. Through simulations and network analysis, the model predictions suggest that targeting neutrophil activation in conjunction with inhibition of either prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) or STAT3 shows promise comparable to interleukin-17 (IL-17) inhibition, one of the most effective treatment options for moderate and severe cases. Our findings underscore the significance of considering complex intercellular interactions and intracellular signaling in psoriasis and highlight the importance of computational approaches in unraveling complex biological systems for drug target identification.

Case report: Acne vulgaris treatment with 5-Aminolaevulinic acid photodynamic therapy and adalimumab: a novel approach

Acne vulgaris is a common skin condition that affects a large proportion of teenagers and young adults. Despite the availability of various treatment options, many patients experience inadequate relief or intolerable side effects. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a growing interest in the treatment of acne vulgaris, with 5-Aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) being one of the most commonly used photosensitizers. Adalimumab is a biologic medication used to treat inflammatory skin conditions such as Psoriasis and Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS), which targets TNF-α. Combining different therapies, such as ALA-PDT and adalimumab, can often provide more effective and longer-lasting results. This report presents the case of a patient with severe and refractory acne vulgaris who was treated with a combination of ALA-PDT and adalimumab, resulting in significant improvement in the condition. The literature review highlights the significant comorbidity associated with acne, emphasizing the need for potential of TNF-α inhibitors for its effective treatments that address physical symptoms and ALA-PDT is known to treat scar hyperplasia, and to prevent or minimize the formation of post-acne hypertrophic scars. The combination of TNF inhibitors and ALA-PDT or adalimumab has shown promising results in treating inflammatory skin conditions, including severe and refractory acne vulgaris, as per recent studies.

The Epigenetic Reader Protein SP140 Regulates Dendritic Cell Activation, Maturation and Tolerogenic Potential

SP140 is an epigenetic reader protein expressed predominantly in immune cells. GWAS studies have shown an association between SP140 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and diverse autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, suggesting a possible pathogenic role for SP140 in immune-mediated diseases. We previously demonstrated that treatment of human macrophages with the novel selective inhibitor of the SP140 protein (GSK761) reduced the expression of endotoxin-induced cytokines, implicating a role of SP140 in the function of inflammatory macrophages. In this study, we investigated the effects of GSK761 on in vitro human dendritic cell (DC) differentiation and maturation, assessing the expression of cytokines and co-stimulatory molecules and their capacity to stimulate T-cell activation and induce phenotypic changes. In DCs, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation induced an increase in SP140 expression and its recruitment to transcription start sites (TSS) of pro-inflammatory cytokine genes. Moreover, LPS-induced cytokines such as TNF, IL-6, and IL-1β were reduced in GSK761- or SP140 siRNA- treated DCs. Although GSK761 did not significantly affect the expression of surface markers that define the differentiation of CD14⁺ monocytes into immature DCs (iDCs), subsequent maturation of iDCs to mature DCs was significantly inhibited. GSK761 strongly reduced expression of the maturation marker CD83, the co-stimulatory molecules CD80 and CD86, and the lipid-antigen presentation molecule CD1b. Finally, when the ability of DCs to stimulate recall T-cell responses by vaccine-specific T cells was assessed, T cells stimulated by GSK761-treated DCs showed reduced TBX21 and RORA expression and increased FOXP3 expression, indicating a preferential generation of regulatory T cells. Overall, this study suggests that SP140 inhibition enhances the tolerogenic properties of DCs, supporting the rationale of targeting SP140 in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases where DC-mediated inflammatory responses contribute to disease pathogenesis.

Clinical Value of Cytokine Assay in Diagnosis and Severity Assessment of Lung Cancer

Purpose

To investigate the clinical value of interleukin 2 (IL-2), interleukin 4 (IL-4), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 10 (IL-10), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in diagnosis and severity assessment of lung cancer.

Methods

In this observational study, 50 physical examination healthy subjects were included in the control group and 100 lung cancer patients were included in the study group. In the study group, 53 cases with pleural effusion were subgrouped to the pleural effusion group (n = 53), while 47 patients were assigned to the nonpleural effusion group (n = 47). Plasma cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) scores of all eligible subjects were collected and compared.

Results

The study group showed significantly higher levels of plasma cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ versus healthy subjects (P < 0.05). Deterioration of lung cancer was associated with increased plasma cytokine levels and APACHE II scores. The combination assay of the above plasma cytokines showed significantly better diagnostic efficacy for lung cancer versus the single assay of the cytokines. Dead patients had higher plasma cytokine levels versus survived patients. The accuracy of plasma IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ levels in the severity assessment of lung cancer was comparable with that of the APACHE II scale.

Conclusion

The plasma cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ are effective markers for the diagnosis of lung cancer. The combined assay contributes to the early diagnosis of lung cancer patients, and the persistent elevation of cytokines suggests an increased risk of death in lung cancer patients, so the detection of cytokine levels facilitates the severity assessment of lung cancer.

Favorable vaccine-induced SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell response profile in patients undergoing immune-modifying therapies

BACKGROUNDPatients undergoing immune-modifying therapies demonstrate a reduced humoral response after COVID-19 vaccination, but we lack a proper evaluation of the effect of such therapies on vaccine-induced T cell responses.METHODSWe longitudinally characterized humoral and spike-specific T cell responses in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), who were on antimetabolite therapy (azathioprine or methotrexate), TNF inhibitors, and/or other biologic treatment (anti-integrin or anti-p40) for up to 6 months after completing 2-dose COVID-19 mRNA vaccination.RESULTSWe demonstrate that a spike-specific T cell response was not only induced in treated patients with IBD at levels similar to those of healthy individuals, but also sustained at higher magnitude for up to 6 months after vaccination, particularly in those treated with TNF inhibitor therapy. Furthermore, the spike-specific T cell response in these patients was mainly preserved against mutations present in SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (Omicron) and characterized by a Th1/IL-10 cytokine profile.CONCLUSIONDespite the humoral response defects, patients under immune-modifying therapies demonstrated a favorable profile of vaccine-induced T cell responses that might still provide a layer of COVID-19 protection.FUNDINGThis study was funded by the National Centre for Infectious Diseases (NCID) Catalyst Grant (FY2021ES) and the National Research Fund Competitive Research Programme (NRF-CRP25-2020-0003).

Diagnostic Value of Inflammatory Markers and Cytokines in Neonatal Sepsis

Objective

To explore the diagnosis value of inflammatory markers and cytokines in neonatal sepsis.

Methods

In this retrospective analysis, 90 cases of neonatal sepsis admitted to our hospital from April 2019 to April 2021 were included in the observation group, and 70 healthy neonates who received routine physical examinations in our hospital during the same period were recruited as the control group. Comparison and analysis of inflammatory markers and cytokines levels between the two groups were performed on days 1, 3, and 7 after the onset. Flow cytometry was used to measure the white blood cells (WBCs) and percentage of neutrophils (N%), immunoturbidimetry was used to determine C-reactive protein (CRP), immunochromatographic analysis was used to determine procalcitonin (PCT) in plasma, and the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to determine interleukin-27 (IL-27), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α).

Results

Compared with healthy controls, neonatal sepsis resulted in significantly higher levels of WBC, N%, PCT, and CRP on days 1, 3, and 7 after onset. The levels of WBC, N%, and PCT were continuously decreased from day 1 to day 7, while the levels of CRP were increased on day 1 and day 3 but declined on day 7 (P < 0.05). Compared with healthy controls, patients with sepsis showed higher levels of IL-27, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α on days 1, 3, and 7 after the onset. The levels of IL-27, IL-6, and IL-10 were increased on day 1 and day 3 but decreased on day 7, and the levels of TNF-α were continuously decreased from day 1 to day 7 (all P < 0.05).

Conclusion

Neonatal sepsis was associated with fluctuating levels of WBC, N%, PCT, CRP, IL-27, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α at different time points of disease. The joint detection of the above indices provides a new pathway for the early diagnosis of neonatal sepsis.

Tumour necrosis factor inhibitors in inflammatory bowel disease: the story continues

In the 1990s, tumour necrosis factor-α inhibitor therapy ushered in the biologic therapy era for inflammatory bowel disease, leading to marked improvements in treatment options and patient outcomes. There are currently four tumour necrosis factor-α inhibitors approved as treatments for ulcerative colitis and/or Crohn's disease: infliximab, adalimumab, golimumab and certolizumab pegol. Despite the clear benefits of tumour necrosis factor-α inhibitors, a subset of patients with inflammatory bowel disease either do not respond, experience a loss of response after initial clinical improvement or report intolerance to anti-tumour necrosis factor-α therapy. Optimizing outcomes of these agents may be achieved through earlier intervention, the use of therapeutic drug monitoring and thoughtful switching within class. To complement these approaches, evolving predictive biomarkers may help inform and optimize clinical decision making by identifying patients who might potentially benefit from an alternative treatment strategy. This review will focus on the current use of tumour necrosis factor-α inhibitors in inflammatory bowel disease and the application of personalized medicine to improve future outcomes for all patients.

Interleukin-17 in rheumatoid arthritis: Trials and tribulations

Interleukin-17A (IL-17A) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine with well-characterized biological effects on stromal cell activation, angiogenesis, and osteoclastogenesis. The presence of this cytokine in the inflamed joints of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), together with compelling data from in vitro and experimental arthritis models demonstrating its pro-inflammatory effects, made this cytokine a strong candidate for therapeutic targeting. Clinical trials, however, have shown relatively modest success in RA as compared with other indications. Guided by recent insights in IL-17 biology, this review aims to explore possible reasons for the limited clinical efficacy of IL-17A blockade in RA, and what we can learn from these results going forward.

IKZF3/Aiolos Is Associated with but Not Sufficient for the Expression of IL-10 by CD4+ T Cells

The expression of anti-inflammatory IL-10 by CD4+ T cells is indispensable for immune homeostasis, as it allows T cells to moderate their effector function. We previously showed that TNF-α blockade during T cell stimulation in CD4+ T cell/monocyte cocultures resulted in maintenance of IL-10-producing T cells and identified IKZF3 as a putative regulator of IL-10. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that IKZF3 is a transcriptional regulator of IL-10 using a human CD4+ T cell-only culture system. IL-10+ CD4+ T cells expressed the highest levels of IKZF3 both ex vivo and after activation compared with IL-10-CD4+ T cells. Pharmacological targeting of IKZF3 with the drug lenalidomide showed that IKZF3 is required for anti-CD3/CD28 mAb-mediated induction of IL-10 but is dispensable for ex vivo IL-10 expression. However, overexpression of IKZF3 was unable to upregulate IL-10 at the mRNA or protein level in CD4+ T cells and did not drive the transcription of the IL10 promoter or putative local enhancer constructs. Collectively, these data indicate that IKZF3 is associated with but not sufficient for IL-10 expression in CD4+ T cells.

Effects of tumor necrosis factor on viral replication and pulmonary inflammation during acute mouse adenovirus type 1 respiratory infection

CD8 T cells contribute to effective clearance of mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) and to virus-induced pulmonary inflammation. We characterized effects of a CD8 T cell effector, TNF, on MAV-1 pathogenesis. TNF inhibited MAV-1 replication in vitro. TNF deficiency or immunoneutralization had no effect on lung viral loads or viral gene expression in mice infected intranasally with MAV-1. Absence of TNF delayed virus-induced weight loss and reduced histological evidence of pulmonary inflammation, although concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were not significantly affected. BALF concentrations of IL-10 were greater in TNF-deficient mice compared to controls. Our data indicate that TNF is not essential for control of viral replication in vivo, but virus-induced TNF contributes to some aspects of immunopathology and disease. Redundant CD8 T cell effectors and other aspects of immune function are sufficient for antiviral and pro-inflammatory responses to acute MAV-1 respiratory infection.

Interplay between Cytokine Circuitry and Transcriptional Regulation Shaping Helper T Cell Pathogenicity and Plasticity in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic disorder manifested as Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) characterized by intestinal inflammation and involves a dysregulated immune response against commensal microbiota through the activation of CD4 T helper cells. T helper cell differentiation to effector or regulatory phenotypes is controlled by cytokine networks and transcriptional regulators. Distinct polarized T helper cells are able to alter their phenotypes to adapt to diverse and fluctuating physiological environments. T helper cells exhibit intrinsic instability and flexibility to express cytokines of other lineages or transdifferentiate from one T helper cell type to another in response to various perturbations from physiological cytokine milieu as a means of promoting local immunity in response to injury or ensure tissue homeostasis. Furthermore, functional plasticity and diversity of T helper cells are associated with pathogenicity and are critical for immune homeostasis and prevention of autoimmunity. In this review, we provide deeper insights into the combinatorial extrinsic and intrinsic signals that control plasticity and transdifferentiation of T helper cells and also highlight the potential of exploiting the genetic reprogramming plasticity of T helper cells in the treatment of IBD.

Antitumoral and Immunomodulatory Effect of Mahonia aquifolium Extracts

The prodrug potential of Mahonia aquifolium, a plant used for centuries in traditional medicine, recently gained visibility in the literature, and the activity of several active compounds isolated from its extracts was studied on biologic systems in vitro and in vivo. Whereas the antioxidative and antitumor activities of M. aquifolium-derived compounds were studied at some extent, there are very few data about their outcome on the immune system and tumor cells. To elucidate the M. aquifolium potential immunomodulatory and antiproliferative effects, the bark, leaf, flower, green fruit, and ripe fruit extracts from the plant were tested on peripheral blood mononuclear cells and tumor cells. The extracts exert fine-tuned control on the immune response, by modulating the CD25 lymphocyte activation pathway, the interleukin-10 signaling, and the tumor necrosis-alpha secretion in four distinct human peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) subpopulations. M. aquifolium extracts exhibit a moderate cytotoxicity and changes in the signaling pathways linked to cell adhesion, proliferation, migration, and apoptosis of the tumor cells. These results open perspectives to further investigation of the M. aquifolium extract prodrug potential.

Anti-TNF treatment negatively regulates human CD4+ T-cell activation and maturation in vitro, but does not confer an anergic or suppressive phenotype

TNF‐blockade has shown clear therapeutic value in rheumatoid arthritis and other immune‐mediated inflammatory diseases, however its mechanism of action is not fully elucidated. We investigated the effects of TNF‐blockade on CD4⁺ T cell activation, maturation, and proliferation, and assessed whether TNF‐inhibitors confer regulatory potential to CD4⁺ T cells. CyTOF and flow cytometry analysis revealed that in vitro treatment of human CD4⁺ T cells with the anti‐TNF monoclonal antibody adalimumab promoted IL‐10 expression in CD4⁺ T cells, whilst decreasing cellular activation. In line with this, analysis of gene expression profiling datasets of anti‐TNF‐treated IL‐17 or IFN‐γ‐producing CD4⁺ T cells revealed changes in multiple pathways associated with cell cycle and proliferation. Kinetics experiments showed that anti‐TNF treatment led to delayed, rather than impaired T‐cell activation and maturation. Whilst anti‐TNF‐treated CD4⁺ T cells displayed some hyporesponsiveness upon restimulation, they did not acquire enhanced capacity to suppress T‐cell responses or modulate monocyte phenotype. These cells however displayed a reduced ability to induce IL‐6 and IL‐8 production by synovial fibroblasts. Together, these data indicate that anti‐TNF treatment delays human CD4⁺ T‐cell activation, maturation, and proliferation, and this reduced activation state may impair their ability to activate stromal cells.

Functions and regulation of T cell-derived interleukin-10

Interleukin (IL)-10 is an essential anti-inflammatory cytokine and functions as a negative regulator of immune responses to microbial antigens. IL-10 is particularly important in maintaining the intestinal microbe-immune homeostasis. Loss of IL-10 promotes the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) as a consequence of an excessive immune response to the gut microbiota. IL-10 also functions more generally to prevent excessive inflammation during the course of infection. Although IL-10 can be produced by virtually all cells of the innate and adaptive immune system, T cells constitute a non-redundant source for IL-10 in many cases. The various roles of T cell-derived IL-10 will be discussed in this review. Given that IL-10 is at the center of maintaining the delicate balance between effective immunity and tissue protection, it is not surprising that IL-10 expression is highly dynamic and tightly regulated. We summarize the environmental signals and molecular pathways that regulate IL-10 expression. While numerous studies have provided us with a deep understanding of IL-10 biology, the majority of findings have been made in murine models, prompting us to highlight gaps in our knowledge about T cell-derived IL-10 in the human system.

IL-17 in the immunopathogenesis of spondyloarthritis

Spondyloarthritis (SpA) is a term that refers to a group of inflammatory diseases that includes psoriatic arthritis, axial SpA and nonradiographic axial SpA, reactive arthritis, enteropathic arthritis and undifferentiated SpA. The disease subtypes share clinical and immunological features, including joint inflammation (peripheral and axial skeleton); skin, gut and eye manifestations; and the absence of diagnostic autoantibodies (seronegative). The diseases also share genetic factors. The aetiology of SpA is still the subject of research by many groups worldwide. Evidence from genetic, experimental and clinical studies has accumulated to indicate a clear role for the IL-17 pathway in the pathogenesis of SpA. The IL-17 family consists of IL-17A, IL-17B, IL-17C, IL-17D, IL-17E and IL-17F, of which IL-17A is the best studied. IL-17A is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that also has the capacity to promote angiogenesis and osteoclastogenesis. Of the six family members, IL-17A has the strongest homology with IL-17F. In this Review, we discuss how IL-17A and IL-17F and their cellular sources might contribute to the immunopathology of SpA.

Actual Anti-TNF Trough Levels Relate to Serum IL-10 in Drug-Responding Patients With Crohn's Disease

BACKGROUND

Patients with Crohn's disease (CD) responding to anti-tumor necrosis factor (anti-TNF) show great variability in serum drug levels, even within the therapeutic range. We aimed at exploring the role of inflammatory, genetic, and bacterial variables in relation to anti-TNF through levels in CD patients.

METHODS

Consecutive CD patients receiving stable doses of infliximab or adalimumab were included. Clinical and analytical parameters were recorded. Cytokine response, bacterial DNA translocation, and several immune-related genes' genotypes were evaluated, along with serum through anti-TNF drug levels. A linear regression analysis controlled by weight and drug regimen was performed.

RESULTS

One hundred nineteen patients were initially considered. Five patients on infliximab and 2 on adalimumab showed antidrug antibodies in serum and were excluded. One hundred twelve patients were finally included (62 on infliximab, 50 on adalimumab). Fourteen patients on infliximab and 15 on adalimumab (22.6% vs 30%, P = 0.37) were receiving an intensified drug regimen. C-reactive protein (CRP), fecal calprotectin, Crohn's Disease Activity Index, leukocyte count, and albumin levels in plasma were not significantly associated with infliximab or adalimumab levels in the multivariate analysis. Serum interleukin-10 (IL-10) levels were directly related to infliximab (Beta = 0.097, P < 0.0001) and adalimumab levels (Beta = 0.069, P = 0.0241). The best multivariate regression model explaining the variability of serum infliximab and adalimumab levels included IL-10. Predicted drug levels by this model robustly fitted with actual drug levels (R2 = 0.841 for infliximab, R2 = 0.733 for adalimumab).

CONCLUSION

Serum IL-10 is significantly related to serum anti-TNF levels in CD patients, showing how the disposition of anti-TNF drugs is significantly influenced by the degree of immunological activation.

The cholesterol biosynthesis pathway regulates IL-10 expression in human Th1 cells

The mechanisms controlling CD4+ T cell switching from an effector to an anti-inflammatory (IL-10+) phenotype play an important role in the persistence of chronic inflammatory diseases. Here, we identify the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway as a key regulator of this process. Pathway analysis of cultured cytokine-producing human T cells reveals a significant association between IL-10 and cholesterol metabolism gene expression. Inhibition of the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway with atorvastatin or 25-hydroxycholesterol during switching from IFNγ+ to IL-10+ shows a specific block in immune resolution, defined as a significant decrease in IL-10 expression. Mechanistically, the master transcriptional regulator of IL10 in T cells, c-Maf, is significantly decreased by physiological levels of 25-hydroxycholesterol. Strikingly, progression to rheumatoid arthritis is associated with altered expression of cholesterol biosynthesis genes in synovial biopsies of predisposed individuals. Our data reveal a link between sterol metabolism and the regulation of the anti-inflammatory response in human CD4+ T cells.

Polarization of Rheumatoid Macrophages by TNF Targeting Through an IL-10/STAT3 Mechanism

Macrophages contribute to the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). They can display different states of activation or “polarization,” notably the so-called inflammatory “M1” and the various alternative “M2” polarizations, characterized by distinct functions. Data regarding the effects of RA anti-cytokine biological disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (bDMARDs) on macrophage polarization are scarce. We aimed to assess in vitro modulation of macrophage polarization by bDMARDs targeting pro-inflammatory cytokines in RA. We generated monocyte derived macrophages using blood samples from 20 RA patients with active RA and 30 healthy controls. We evaluated in vitro the impact on M1 inflammatory macrophages of: etanercept (ETA), adalimumab (ADA), certolizumab (CZP), tocilizumab (TCZ), and rituximab (RTX). We assessed the impact on macrophage polarization using flow cytometry and RTqPCR to study the expression of surface markers and perform functional studies of cytokine production, phagocytosis, and negative feedback control of inflammation. Among evaluated bDMARDs, anti-TNF agents modulated the polarization of inflammatory macrophages by decreasing inflammatory surface markers (CD40, CD80) and favoring alternative markers (CD16, CD163, MerTK). Anti-TNF agents also induced alternative functions in macrophages activated in inflammatory condition with (i) the inhibition of inflammatory cytokines (TNF, IL-6, IL-12), (ii) an increase in phagocytosis. These findings were mechanistically related to an increase in early IL-10 production, responsible for higher negative feedback control of inflammation involving SOCS3 and Gas6. This IL-10 effect was STAT3-dependent. Anti-TNF agents not only inhibit in vitro inflammatory functions of macrophages, but also favor resolution of inflammation through polarization toward alternative features specifically involving the IL-10/STAT3 axis.