Polyphyllin I Ameliorates Collagen-Induced Arthritis by Suppressing the Inflammation Response in Macrophages Through the NF-κB Pathway

The mechanism of polyphyllin in the treatment of gastric cancer was verified based on network pharmacology and experimental validation

Background

Polyphyllin is a class of saponins extracted from Paris polyphylla rhizomes and has been used in clinical application in China for more than 2000 years. However, the mechanism for treating gastric cancer (GC) is still unclear. This study was designed to predict the targets and mechanisms of total Polyphyllin from Paris polyphylla rhizomes for the treatment of GC.

Method

Firstly, PubChem and Swiss Target Prediction databases were utilized to collect the 12 ingredients of total Polyphyllin from Paris polyphylla rhizomes and their targets. GC-related genes were obtained from the GEO database. Then the intersecting targets to all these molecules that identified using Venny. Secondly, the intersecting targets were imported into STRING platform for protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. Moreover, Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were conducted in DAVID website. In addition, the GEPIA was applied to perform the expression levels, transcript levels, staging, and overall survival of hub genes. In addition, we used AutoDock Vina to evaluate binding affinity of molecular docking between key ingredients and anti-GC targets. In vitro cell experiments, we detected the cell viability of gastric cancer cells at 24, 36, and 48 h using CCK-8 assay. The G0/G1 of cell cycle and apoptosis were detected by flow cytometry. Finally, quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to detect the level of hub genes, and Western blot was used to detect the changes of PI3K/Akt signal pathway.

Results

Firstly, we identified 12 ingredients and 286 targets of total Polyphyllin. A total of 2653 GC-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were collected, including 1366 up-regulated genes and 1287 down-regulated genes. Moreover, 45 targets were obtained after intersection. Secondly, results of the GO enrichment suggested that these genes were closely related to cell proliferation, migration and aging. KEGG analysis suggested that Polyphyllin in GC therapy were mostly regulated by multiple pathways, including the pathways in cancer, calcium signaling pathway, Rap1 signaling pathway, phospholipase D signaling pathway, etc. In addition, GEPIA results exhibited that PDGFRB, KIT, FGF1, GLI1, F2R, and HIF1A were associated with GC progression, stage, and survival. Besides, the molecular docking results further confirmed that the binding energy of Polyphyllin Ⅲ with HIF1A was minimal. In vitro cell experiments, Polyphyllin Ⅲ inhibited the cell viability of gastric cancer cells, blocked the cell cycle G0/G1 phase, and induced cell apoptosis. In addition, Polyphyllin Ⅲ down-regulated the mRNA levels of PDGFRB, KIT, FGF1, GLI1, F2R, and HIF1A, and regulated the PI3K/Akt signal pathway.

Conclusions

The results revealed that total Polyphyllin treated GC through multiple targets, multiple channels, and multiple pathways. In addition, Polyphyllin Ⅲ played an anti-gastric cancer role by inhibiting the proliferation of gastric cancer.

Effects of chronic Cr and Ni co-exposure on liver inflammation and autophagy in mice by regulating the TLR4/mTOR pathway

Exposure to Cr and/or Ni can have widespread implications on the environment and health. However, the specific toxic effects of chronic Cr and Ni co-exposure on mice liver have not been reported. To ascertain the combined toxic effects of chronic Cr and Ni co-exposure on liver damage in mice, 80 6-week-old female C57BL/6 J mice were randomly divided into 4 groups: the Con group, Cr group (Cr+6 50 mg/L), Ni group (Ni+2 110 mg/L), and Cr + Ni group (Cr+6 50 mg/L + Ni+2 110 mg/L). The trial period lasted for 16 weeks. The results showed that Cr+6 and/or Ni+2 increased liver weight and liver index (P < 0.05) in mice, caused histological abnormality and ultrastructural damage, and micronutrients imbalance in mice liver. These findings serve as the basis for subsequent experiments. Compared with the individual exposure group, chronic Cr and Ni co-exposure resulted in decreased levels and activities of ALT, AST, MDA, T-AOC, and T-SOD (P < 0.05) in liver tissue, and decreased the mRNA expression levels of the TLR4/mTOR pathway related factors (TLR4, TRAM, TRIF, TBK-1, IRF-3, MyD88, IRAK-4, TRAF6, TAK-1, IKKβ, NF-κB, IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, ULK1, Beclin 1, LC3) (P < 0.05) and decreased the protein expression levels of the factors (TLR4, MyD88, TRAF6, NF-κB p50, IL-6, TNFα, ULK1, LC3II/LC3I) (P < 0.05). Moreover, factorial analysis revealed the interaction between Cr and Ni, which was manifested as antagonistic effects on Cr concentration, Ni concentration, and TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB, mTOR, LC3, and p62 mRNA expression levels. In conclusion, the TLR4/mTOR pathway as a mechanism through which chronic Cr and Ni co-exposure induce liver inflammation and autophagy in mice, and there was an antagonistic effect between Cr and Ni. The above results provided a theoretical basis for understanding the underlying processes.

Polyphyllin I alleviates neuroinflammation after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury via facilitating autophagy-mediated M2 microglial polarization

Microglial activation and polarization play a central role in poststroke inflammation and neuronal damage. Modulating microglial polarization from pro-inflammatory to anti-inflammatory phenotype is a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of cerebral ischemia. Polyphyllin I (PPI), a steroidal saponin, shows multiple bioactivities in various diseases, but the potential function of PPI in cerebral ischemia is not elucidated yet. In our study, the influence of PPI on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury was evaluated. Mouse middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model and oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD/R) model were constructed to mimic cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in vivo and in vitro. TTC staining, TUNEL staining, RT-qPCR, ELISA, flow cytometry, western blot, immunofluorescence, hanging wire test, rotarod test and foot-fault test, open-field test and Morris water maze test were performed in our study. We found that PPI alleviated cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury and neuroinflammation, and improved functional recovery of mice after MCAO. PPI modulated microglial polarization towards anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype in MCAO mice in vivo and post OGD/R in vitro. Besides, PPI promoted autophagy via suppressing Akt/mTOR signaling in microglia, while inhibition of autophagy abrogated the effect of PPI on M2 microglial polarization after OGD/R. Furthermore, PPI facilitated autophagy-mediated ROS clearance to inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation in microglia, and NLRP3 inflammasome reactivation by nigericin abolished the effect of PPI on M2 microglia polarization. In conclusion, PPI alleviated post-stroke neuroinflammation and tissue damage via increasing autophagy-mediated M2 microglial polarization. Our data suggested that PPI had potential for ischemic stroke treatment.

PolyphyllinVI alleviates the spared nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain based on P2X3 receptor-mediated the release of inflammatory mediators

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

PolyphyllinVI (PPⅥ) is the main bioactive component of Chonglou which is a traditional Chinese herbal with various effects, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and analgesia.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the properties and mechanisms of the analgesia of PPⅥ by using neuropathic pain (NPP) mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The potential targets and mechanisms of PPⅥ in alleviating NPP were excavated based on the network pharmacology. Subsequently, the construction of a spared nerve injury (SNI) mice model was used to evaluate the effect of PPⅥ on NPP and the expression of the P2X3 receptor. We identified the signaling pathways of PPⅥ analgesia by RNA sequencing.

RESULTS

The results of network pharmacology showed that BCL2, CASP3, JUN, STAT3, and TNF were the key targets of the analgesic effect of PPⅥ. PPⅥ increased the MWT and TWL of SNI mice and decreased the level of P2X3 receptors in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and spinal cord (SC). Additionally, PPⅥ reduced the release of pro-inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) in the DRG, SC, and serum. Based on the KEGG enrichment of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified by RNA-Seq, PPVI may relieve NPP by regulating the AMPK/NF-κB signaling pathway. Western blotting results showed that the AMPK signaling pathway was activated, followed by inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

PPⅥ increased the MWT and TWL of SNI mice maybe by inhibiting the expression of the P2X3 receptor and the release of inflammatory mediators. The properties of the analgesia of PPⅥ may be based on the AMPK/NF-κB pathway.

Traditional Chinese medicine in regulating macrophage polarization in immune response of inflammatory diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Numerous studies have demonstrated that various traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) exhibit potent anti-inflammatory effects against inflammatory diseases mediated through macrophage polarization and metabolic reprogramming.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objective of this review was to assess and consolidate the current understanding regarding the pathogenic mechanisms governing macrophage polarization in the context of regulating inflammatory diseases. We also summarize the mechanism action of various TCMs on the regulation of macrophage polarization, which may contribute to facilitate the development of natural anti-inflammatory drugs based on reshaping macrophage polarization.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a comprehensive review of recently published articles, utilizing keywords such as "macrophage polarization" and "traditional Chinese medicines" in combination with "inflammation," as well as "macrophage polarization" and "inflammation" in conjunction with "natural products," and similar combinations, to search within PubMed and Google Scholar databases.

RESULTS

A total of 113 kinds of TCMs (including 62 components of TCMs, 27 TCMs as well as various types of extracts of TCMs and 24 Chinese prescriptions) was reported to exert anti-inflammatory effects through the regulation of key pathways of macrophage polarization and metabolic reprogramming.

CONCLUSIONS

In this review, we have analyzed studies concerning the involvement of macrophage polarization and metabolic reprogramming in inflammation therapy. TCMs has great advantages in regulating macrophage polarization in treating inflammatory diseases due to its multi-pathway and multi-target pharmacological action. This review may contribute to facilitate the development of natural anti-inflammatory drugs based on reshaping macrophage polarization.

Saponins of Paris polyphylla for the Improvement of Acne: Anti-Inflammatory, Antibacterial, Antioxidant and Immunomodulatory Effects

Acne is a chronic inflammatory skin disease with a recurring nature that seriously impacts patients' quality of life. Currently, antibiotic resistance has made it less effective in treating acne. However, Paris polyphylla (P. polyphylla) is a valuable medicinal plant with a wide range of chemical components. Of these, P. polyphylla saponins modulate the effects in vivo and in vitro through antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant effects. Acne is primarily associated with inflammatory reactions, abnormal sebum function, micro-ecological disorders, hair follicle hyperkeratosis, and, in some patients, immune function. Therefore, the role of P. polyphylla saponins and their values in treating acne is worthy of investigation. Overall, this review first describes the distribution and characteristics of P. polyphylla and the pathogenesis of acne. Then, the potential mechanisms of P. polyphylla saponins in treating acne are listed in detail (reduction in the inflammatory response, antibacterial action, modulation of immune response and antioxidant effects, etc.). In addition, a brief description of the chemical composition of P. polyphylla saponins and its available extraction methods are described. We hope this review can serve as a quick and detailed reference for future studies on their potential acne treatment.

Huangqi Guizhi Wuwu Decoction suppresses inflammation and bone destruction in collagen-induced arthritis mice

Objective

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory and destructive arthritis, characterized by inflammatory infiltration and bone destruction. Huangqi Guizhi Wuwu Decoction (HGWD) is traditional Chinese medicine, which has been applied in the treatment of RA in clinical. The aim of this study was to investigate the therapeutic effect of HGWD on collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model.

Methods

DBA/1J female mice were used to establish the collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model. HGWD was administered intragastrically once a day for four weeks starting on the 22nd day after the first immunization. The body weight, hind paw thickness and clinical score were measured every five days. Gait analysis, histopathological staining, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), ultrasound imaging and micro-computed tomography imaging were performed to determine the effects of HGWD treatment on inflammation and bone structure in this model. Moreover, Real-time PCR and Western blot analysis were used to detect inflammatory factors mRNA and protein levels after HGWD intervention in RAW 264.7 cells.

Results

HGWD attenuated symptoms of arthritis, suppressed inflammatory synovium area and the serum levels of inflammatory factors, inhibited joint space enlargement in the knee and ankle joints, reduced numbers of osteoclasts, protected bone destruction, as well as improved motor function. HGWD decreased the expression of mRNA for inflammatory factors and the protein expression levels of p-NF-кB and IL-17.

Conclusion

These results suggested that HGWD suppresses inflammation, attenuates bone erosion and maintains motor function in collagen-induced arthritis mice.

Polyphyllin I enhances tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand-induced inhibition of human osteosarcoma cell growth downregulating the Wnt/β-catenin pathway

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the synergistic effects of polyphyllin I (PPI) combined with tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) on the growth of osteosarcoma cells through downregulating the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.

METHODS

Cell viability, apoptosis and cell cycle distribution were examined using cell counting kit-8 and flow cytometry assays. The morphology of cancer cells was observed with inverted phase contrast microscope. The migration and invasion abilities were examined by xCELLigence real time cell analysis DP system and transwell assays. The expressions of poly (adenosine diphosphate-ribose) polymerase, C-Myc, Cyclin B1, cyclin-dependent kinases 1, N-cadherin, Vimentin, Active-β-catenin, β-catenin, p-glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) and GSK-3β were determined by Western blotting assay.

RESULTS

PPI sensitized TRAIL-induced decrease of viability, migration and invasion, as well as increase of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest of MG-63 and U-2 OS osteosarcoma cells. The synergistic effect of PPI with TRAIL in inhibiting the growth of osteosarcoma cells was at least partially realized through the inactivation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

The combination of PPI and TRAIL is potentially a novel treatment strategy of osteosarcoma.

Polyphyllin Ⅲ regulates EMT of lung cancer cells through GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway

Background

Some studies have found that the application of traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of lung cancer has achieved satisfying results. Polyphyllin Ⅲ (PP Ⅲ) is a natural steroid saponin from P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis, and its analogs have played a wide role in anticancer research. This study aimed to investigate the effect of PP Ⅲ on the development of lung cancer and its molecular mechanism.

Methods

A549 and NCI-H1299 cell lines were treated with PP Ⅲ in gradient concentration to detect the IC50 of the cells, and the optimal concentration was selected for subsequent experiments. The effects of PP III treatment on lung cancer were investigated in vitro and in vivo.

Results

In vitro experiments, it was found that the proliferation, invasion, migration, and colony formation ability of cancer cells were significantly reduced after PP III treatment, while accompanied by a large number of cell apoptosis. Further detection showed that N-cadherin was significantly decreased, E-cadherin was increased, and Snail and Twist were decreased in A549 cells and NCI-H1299 cells, respectively. In addition, GSK-3β expression was increased, while β-catenin expression was reduced with PP III treatment. In the mouse model, it was demonstrated that the volume of transplanted tumors was significantly reduced after PP Ⅲ treatment.

Conclusions

PP Ⅲ has the capacity to inhibit the progression of lung cancer and regulate epithelial-mesenchymal transition through the GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway to suppress the malignant behavior of cancer cells. The application of PP Ⅲ is expected to be an effective method for the treatment of lung cancer.

Bisdemethoxycurcumin, a curcumin derivative, ameliorates adjuvant-induced arthritis by suppressing inflammatory reactions and macrophage migration

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a highly prevalent and chronic inflammatory synovial joint disease manifested by hyperplasia and continuous inflammation. Curcumin (Cur) has been studied for alleviating RA. However, poor stability and oral bioavailability restrict its therapeutic value. Bisdemethoxycurcumin (BDMC), a curcumin (Cur) derivative, exerts better stability and oral bioavailability than Cur. However, the efficacy of BDMC on RA has not been fully clarified. The aim of the study was to investigate the therapeutic effects and underlying mechanisms of BDMC on RA. The in-vivo anti-arthritic activity of BDMC was determined via adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rat model. Paw swelling, body weight, arthritic index, and histopathological assessments were performed. RAW264.7 cell was stimulated by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in vitro. The cell viability were determined by CCK8 assay, while the migration ability was determined using cell wound healing and transwell assays. Furthermore, in-vivo and in-vitro levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) were assayed by ELISA, and that of IκBα, p-NF-κB, NF-κB, and COX-2 were assessed via Western blot or immunofluorescence. In AIA rat model, it suggested a higher anti-arthritic activity of BDMC than Cur, including amelioration of swelling in hind paws, reduced arthritic index, and alleviated histopathological injury in rats. Furthermore, BDMC also substantially decreased the levels of the aforementioned pro-inflammatory cytokines in both in-vivo and in-vitro, inhibited the IκBα degradation, down-regulated the COX-2 levels and p-NF-κB/NF-κB ratio in AIA rats and LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Additionally, BDMC showed an inhibitory effect on the migration of LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. BDMC could effectively ameliorate RA by suppressing inflammatory reactions and inhibiting macrophage migration, more potentially than Cur.

Polyphyllin II inhibits NLPR3 inflammasome activation and inflammatory response of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected human bronchial epithelial cells

BACKGROUND

The bronchial infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is increasing in prevalence and severity worldwide. Despite appropriate tuberculosis treatment, most patients still develop bronchial stenosis, which often leads to disability. Polyphyllin II (PP2) is a steroidal saponin extracted from Rhizoma Paridis. In this study, we aimed to explore the effect of PP2 on the advancement of Mtb-induced bronchial infection.

METHOD

The effects of PP2 on cell viability were measured by using MTT and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) kit. The mRNA and protein levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-8 were elucidated by RT-qPCR and ELISA, respectively. The expression of NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) related inflammasome (NLRP3, IL-1β, and cleaved-caspase-1) and the activated degree of protein kinase B (AKT)/nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB; p-AKT and p-NF-κB) were detected by Western blotting.

RESULTS

PP2 at 0, 1, 5, and 10 μM had little cytotoxicity on 16HBE cells. PP2 inhibited Mtb-induced cell proliferation and decreased LDH levels. We further found that PP2 could suppress Mtb-induced inflammatory responses and activation of NLPR3 inflammasome. Additionally, the role of PP2 in Mtb is associated with the AKT/NF-kB signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

PP2 inhibited Mtb infection in bronchial epithelial cells, by inhibiting Mtb-induced inflammatory reactions and activation of NLPR3 inflammasome. These effects may be exerted by suppressing the AKT/NF-kB pathway, which will provide a prospective treatment.

Polyphyllin I, a strong antifungal compound against Candida albicans

This study was performed to explore the antifungal and antibiofilm effects of polyphyllin I (PPI) on Candida albicans. Microdilution assay was performed to determine the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of PPI against Candida species. Adhesion assay, hyphal growth assay, biofilm formation, and development were used to test the impacts of PPI on C. albicans virulence factors. Propidium iodide staining was performed to test whether the permeability of cell membrane was influenced by PPI. PPI showed significant antifungal activities against several Candida species, with MIC below or equal to 6.25 μM. PPI also inhibited the adhesion to polystyrene surfaces, hyphal growth, and biofilm formation. PPI significantly increased the permeability of C. albicans cell membrane. In sum, PPI can suppress the planktonic growth and biofilm of C. albicans and its mechanism involves the increased permeability of cell membrane.

COIMMR: a computational framework to reveal the contribution of herbal ingredients against human cancer via immune microenvironment and metabolic reprogramming

Immune evasion and metabolism reprogramming have been regarded as two vital hallmarks of the mechanism of carcinogenesis. Thus, targeting the immune microenvironment and the reprogrammed metabolic processes will aid in developing novel anti-cancer drugs. In recent decades, herbal medicine has been widely utilized to treat cancer through the modulation of the immune microenvironment and reprogrammed metabolic processes. However, labor-based herbal ingredient screening is time consuming, laborious and costly. Luckily, some computational approaches have been proposed to screen candidates for drug discovery rapidly. Yet, it has been challenging to develop methods to screen drug candidates exclusively targeting specific pathways, especially for herbal ingredients which exert anti-cancer effects by multiple targets, multiple pathways and synergistic ways. Meanwhile, currently employed approaches cannot quantify the contribution of the specific pathway to the overall curative effect of herbal ingredients. Hence, to address this problem, this study proposes a new computational framework to infer the contribution of the immune microenvironment and metabolic reprogramming (COIMMR) in herbal ingredients against human cancer and specifically screen herbal ingredients targeting the immune microenvironment and metabolic reprogramming. Finally, COIMMR was applied to identify isoliquiritigenin that specifically regulates the T cells in stomach adenocarcinoma and cephaelin hydrochloride that specifically targets metabolic reprogramming in low-grade glioma. The in silico results were further verified using in vitro experiments. Taken together, our approach opens new possibilities for repositioning drugs targeting immune and metabolic dysfunction in human cancer and provides new insights for drug development in other diseases. COIMMR is available at https://github.com/LYN2323/COIMMR.

Investigation of the Mechanism of Action of Periploca forrestii Schltr. Extract on Adjuvant Collagen Rats Based on UPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS Non-Targeted Lipidomics

Periploca forrestii Schltr. (P. forrestii) is a classical medicinal plant and is commonly used in traditional medicine for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, soft tissue injuries, and traumatic injuries. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-arthritic effects of three fractions of P. forrestii alcoholic extracts (PAE), P. forrestii water extracts (PWE), and total flavonoids from P. forrestii (PTF) on Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA)-induced arthritis in rats, and to use a non-targeted lipidomic method to investigate the mechanism of action of the three fractions of P. forrestii in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. To assess the effectiveness of anti-rheumatoid arthritis, various indicators were measured, including joint swelling, histopathological changes in the joints, serum cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6)), and the joint inflammatory substance prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Finally, ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-orbitrap-high-resolution mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS) was used to determine the non-targeted lipid histology of the collected rat serum and urine samples to investigate the possible mechanism of action. PWE, PAE, and PTF were all effective in treating FCA-induced rheumatoid arthritis. The administered groups all reduced joint swelling and lowered serum inflammatory factor levels in rats. In the screening of lipid metabolite differences between serum and urine of the rat model group and the normal group, a total of 52 different metabolites were screened, and the levels of lipid metabolites in PWE, PAE, and PTF were significantly higher than those in the normal group after administration. In addition, PWE, PAE, and PTF may have significant therapeutic effects on FCA-induced arthritis by modulating nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, and histidine metabolic pathways.

Global scientific trends update on macrophage polarization in rheumatoid arthritis: A bibliometric and visualized analysis from 2000 to 2022

The goal of this work was to use bibliometric analysis to help guide future research on macrophage polarization in RA. We looked for studies on macrophage polarization in RA published between January 1, 2000, and December 31, 2022, in the WoSCC database. Research trends and hotspots were shown and assessed using VOSviewer and CiteSpace. A total of 181 articles were gathered. Belgium was among the early adopters of the field. Chinese institutes have produced the most research. Researchers such as Angel Luis Corb, Amaya Puig-Kröger, and Lizbeth Estrada-Capetillo have made major contributions to the field. Frontiers in Immunology has published the most study findings. According to VOSviewer, the most investigated immune cells, biomarkers, and signaling pathways in the previous three years have been "T cells", "gm-csf", and "nf-κb" in that order. We discovered that the most often used terms in the previous three years were "pathway", "oxidative stress", "extracellular capsule" and "nlrp3 inflammasome" using Citespace. We emphasize these concepts in our findings, presenting the exact mechanisms of pathophysiology related to macrophage polarization in RA, as well as current breakthroughs in therapy strategies.

Macrophage Polarization and the Regulation of Bone Immunity in Bone Homeostasis

Bone homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium state of bone formation and absorption, ensuring skeletal development and repair. Bone immunity encompasses all aspects of the intersection between the skeletal and immune systems, including various signaling pathways, cytokines, and the crosstalk between immune cells and bone cells under both homeostatic and pathological conditions. Therefore, as key cell types in bone immunity, macrophages can polarize into classical pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages and alternative anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages under the influence of the body environment, participating in the regulation of bone metabolism and playing various roles in bone homeostasis. M1 macrophages can not only act as precursors of osteoclasts (OCs), differentiate into mature OCs, but also secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines to promote bone resorption; while M2 macrophages secrete osteogenic factors, stimulating the differentiation and mineralization of osteoblast precursors and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and subsequently increase bone formation. Once the polarization of macrophages is imbalanced, the resulting immune dysregulation will cause inflammatory stimulation, and release a large amount of inflammatory factors affecting bone metabolism, leading to pathological conditions such as osteoporosis (OP), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and steroid-induced femoral head necrosis (SANFH). In this review, we introduce the signaling pathways and related factors of macrophage polarization, as well as their relationships with immune factors, OB, OC, and MSC. We also discuss the roles of macrophage polarization and bone immunity in various diseases of bone homeostasis imbalance, as well as the factors regulating them, which may help to develop new methods for treating bone metabolic disorders.

Prevention and treatment of inflammatory arthritis with traditional Chinese medicine: Underlying mechanisms based on cell and molecular targets

Inflammatory arthritis, primarily including rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and ankylosing spondylitis, is a group of chronic inflammatory diseases, whose general feature is joint dysfunction with chronic pain and eventually causes disability in older people. To date, both Western medicine and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) have developed a variety of therapeutic methods for inflammatory arthritis and achieved excellent results. But there is still a long way to totally cure these diseases. TCM has been used to treat various joint diseases for thousands of years in Asia. In this review, we summarize clinical efficacies of TCM in inflammatory arthritis treatment after reviewing the results demonstrated in meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and clinical trials. We pioneered taking inflammatory arthritis-related cell targets of TCM as the entry point and further elaborated the molecular targets inside the cells of TCM, especially the signaling pathways. In addition, we also briefly discussed the relationship between gut microbiota and TCM and described the role of drug delivery systems for using TCM more accurately and safely. We provide updated and comprehensive insights into the clinical application of TCM for inflammatory arthritis treatment. We hope this review can guide and inspire researchers to further explore mechanisms of the anti-arthritis activity of TCM and make a great leap forward in comprehending the science of TCM.

Polyphyllin I suppressed the apoptosis of intervertebral disc nucleus pulposus cells induced by IL-1β by miR-503-5p/Bcl-2 axis

BACKGROUND

There are no studies that have shown the role and underlying mechanism of Polyphyllin I (PPI)-mediated anti-apoptosis activity in nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs). The research aimed to evaluate the effects of PPI in interleukin (IL)-1β-induced NPCs apoptosis in vitro.

METHODS

Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay was used to detect cell viability, and cell apoptosis was evaluated by double-stained flow cytometry (FITC Annexin V/PI). The expression of miR-503-5p was quantified by real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR), and the expression of Bcl-2, Bax, and cleaved caspase-3 was quantified by Western blot. Dual-luciferase reporter gene assay was used to detect the targeting relationship between miR-503-5p and Bcl-2.

RESULTS

PPI at 40 μg·mL^-1 markedly promoted the viability of NPCs (P < 0.01). Also, PPI inhibited apoptosis and reduction in proliferative activity induced by IL-1β in the NPCs (P < 0.001, 0.01). PPI treatment significantly inhibited the expression of apoptosis-related protein Bax, cleaved caspase-3 (P < 0.05, 0.01), and enhanced the level of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 (P < 0.01). The proliferative activity of NPCs was significantly decreased and the apoptosis rate of NPCs was increased under IL-1β treatment (P < 0.01, 0.001). Moreover, miR-503-5p was highly expressed in IL-1β-induced NPCs (P < 0.001). Furthermore, the effect of PPI on NPCs viability and apoptosis in IL-1β treatment was dramatically reversed by the overexpression of miR-503-5p (P < 0.01, 0.01). The targeted binding of miR-503-5p to the 3'UTR of Bcl-2 mRNA was confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter gene assays (P < 0.05). In further experiments, compared with miR-503-5p mimics, the effects of PPI on IL-1β-induced NPCs viability and apoptosis were greatly reversed by the co-overexpression of miR-503-5p and Bcl-2 (P < 0.05, 0.05).

CONCLUSION

PPI suppressed the apoptosis of intervertebral disk (IVD) NPCs induced by IL-1β via miR-503-5p/Bcl-2 molecular axis.

Magnoflorine Ameliorates Collagen-Induced Arthritis by Suppressing the Inflammation Response via the NF-κB/MAPK Signaling Pathways

Objective

Magnoflorine (Mag) has been reported to have anxiolytics, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we aim to investigate the effects of Mag on the rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and explore the underlying mechanism using a collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model and a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophage inflammation model.

Methods

The in vivo effects of Mag on CIA were studied by inducing CIA in a mouse model using DBA/1J mice followed by treatment with vehicle, methotrexate (MTX, 1 mg/kg/d), and Mag (5 mg/kg/d, 10 mg/kg/d, and 20 mg/kg/d), and the in vitro effects of Mag on macrophages were examined by stimulation of RAW264.7 cells line and peritoneal macrophages (PMs) by LPS in the presence of different concentrations of Mag. Network pharmacology and molecular docking was then performed to predict the the binding ability between Mag and its targets. Inflammatory mediators were assayed by quantitative real-time PCR and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Signaling pathway changes were subsequently determined by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry (IHC).

Results

In vivo experiments demonstrated that Mag decreased arthritis severity scores, joints destruction, and macrophages infiltration into the synovial tissues of the CIA mice. Network pharmacology analysis revealed that Mag interacted with TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and MCP-1. Consistent with this, analysis of the serum, synovial tissue of the CIA mice, and the supernatant of the cultured RAW264.7 cells and PMs showed that Mag suppressed the expression of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, MCP-1, iNOS, and IFN-β. Furthermore, Mag attenuated the phosphorylation of p65, IκBα, ERK, JNK, and p38 MAPKs in the synovial tissues of the CIA mice and LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.

Conclusion

Mag may exert anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the activation of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.

Paris saponin Ⅰ induce toxicity in zebrafish by up-regulation of p53 pathway and down-regulation of wnt pathway

Paris saponin I, II, and VII are three important components in Paris polyphylla, which have been widely studied as tumor cytotoxic drugs, but their safety in vivo has not been reported. Therefore, this study evaluated the safety of these three drugs based on the zebrafish model. Firstly, the lethality curves and half lethal rates of the three saponins were determined and the results showed the values of LC₅₀ of Paris saponin I, II, and VII were 122.2, 210.7, 566.2 ng/ml, respectively. And then our data revealed that Paris saponin I, II and VII had definite hepatotoxicity, as shown by their significant reduction in the liver area and fluorescence intensity of zebrafish. Besides, Paris saponin Ⅰ affected the heart rate of zebrafish obviously, suggesting its cardiovascular toxicity. Afterwards, we found Paris saponin Ⅰ and Ⅶ reduced the area and fluorescence intensity of kidney in zebrafish, and had mild nephrotoxicity. And when treated with Paris saponin I, the pathological section of liver tissue in zebrafish showed vacuoles, severe necrosis of hepatocytes, and then the apoptosis of hepatocytes could be observed by TUNEL staining. Eventually, we found that the genes expression of p53, Bax and β-catenin changed significantly in the administration group of Paris saponin I. In general, our study proved Paris saponin Ⅰ was the most toxic of the three saponins, and the most definite toxic target sites were liver and cardiovascular. And it was further inferred that the hepatotoxicity of Paris saponin Ⅰ may be related to the regulation of p53 pathway and Wnt pathway. These results above showed the toxicity of the three saponins in zebrafish, suggesting their safety should be paid more attention in the future.

Polyphyllin VI screened from Chonglou by cell membrane immobilized chromatography relieves inflammatory pain by inhibiting inflammation and normalizing the expression of P2X3 purinoceptor

Objective: Inflammatory pain is one of the most common diseases in daily life and clinic. In this work, we analysed bioactive components of the traditional Chinese medicine Chonglou and studied mechanisms of their analgesic effects. Material and methods: Molecular docking technology and U373 cells overexpressing P2X3 receptors combined with the cell membrane immobilized chromatography were used to screen possible CL bioactive molecules interacting with the P2X3 receptor. Moreover, we investigated the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Polyphyllin VI (PPIV), in mice with chronic neuroinflammatory pain induced by CFA (complete Freund's adjuvant). Results: The results of cell membrane immobilized chromatography and molecular docking showed that PPVI was one of the effective compounds of Chonglou. In mice with CFA-induced chronic neuroinflammatory pain, PPVI decreased the thermal paw withdrawal latency and mechanical paw withdrawal threshold and diminished foot edema. Additionally, in mice with CFA-induced chronic neuroinflammatory pain, PPIV reduced the expression of the pro-inflammatory factors IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α, and downregulated the expression of P2X3 receptors in the dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord. Conclusion: Our work identifies PPVI as a potential analgesic component in the Chonglou extract. We demonstrated that PPVI reduces pain by inhibiting inflammation and normalizing P2X3 receptor expression in the dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord.

Decreased Peli1 expression attenuates osteoarthritis by protecting chondrocytes and inhibiting M1-polarization of macrophages

AIMS

Pellino1 (Peli1) has been reported to regulate various inflammatory diseases. This study aims to explore the role of Peli1 in the occurrence and development of osteoarthritis (OA), so as to find new targets for the treatment of OA.

METHODS

After inhibiting Peli1 expression in chondrocytes with small interfering RNA (siRNA), interleukin (IL)-1β was used to simulate inflammation, and OA-related indicators such as synthesis, decomposition, inflammation, and apoptosis were detected. Toll-like receptor (TLR) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signalling pathway were detected. After inhibiting the expression of Peli1 in macrophages Raw 264.7 with siRNA and intervening with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the polarization index of macrophages was detected, and the supernatant of macrophage medium was extracted as conditioned medium to act on chondrocytes and detect the apoptosis index. The OA model of mice was established by destabilized medial meniscus (DMM) surgery, and adenovirus was injected into the knee cavity to reduce the expression of Peli1. The degree of cartilage destruction and synovitis were evaluated by haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, Safranin O/Fast Green staining, and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

In chondrocytes, knockdown of Peli1 produced anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects by targeting the TLR and NF-κB signalling pathways. We found that in macrophages, knockdown of Peli1 can inhibit M1-type polarization of macrophages. In addition, the corresponding conditioned culture medium of macrophages applied to chondrocytes can also produce an anti-apoptotic effect. During in vivo experiments, the results have also shown that knockdown Peli1 reduces cartilage destruction and synovial inflammation.

CONCLUSION

Knockdown of Peli1 has a therapeutic effect on OA, which therefore makes it a potential therapeutic target for OA.Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2023;12(2):121-132.

Development, characterisation, and in vitro anti-tumor effect of self-microemulsifying drug delivery system containing polyphyllin I

Polyphyllin I (PPI), an effective active ingredient in Paris polyphylla, has a diverse set of pharmacological properties. However, due to its poor solubility and oral absorption, its application and development are limited. In the study, we were committed to improving the solubility of PPI by developing a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of PPI (PPI-SMEDDS), screening the best preparation process, and evaluating the quality and the in vivo pharmacokinetics of PPI, and PPI-SMEDDS following oral administration to rats were also studied. In addition, the pharmacological activities against human lung adenocarcinoma cell A549 in vitro were assessed. The best formulation had 15.89% ethyl oleate, 47.38% Cremophor RH40, and 36.73% 1,2 propylene glycol. The produced PPI-SMEDDS was clear and transparent, with an average particle size of 24.51 nm and a zeta potential of -17.54 ± 0.51 mV. In vitro, the cumulative release rate of PPI-SMEDDS was nearly 80% within 2 h. PPI-SMEDDS had a substantially greater area under the curve than PPI following oral treatment in rats, and the relative bioavailability of PPI in rats was 278.99%. More importantly, the anti-tumor effect of PPI-SMEDDS in vitro was significantly greater than that of PPI. These findings suggested that PPI-SMEDDS has the potential to improve the solubility, oral bioavailability of PPI, and anti-tumor effect, laying the groundwork for future research on the new PPI dosage form.

Polyphyllin B Suppresses Gastric Tumor Growth by Modulating Iron Metabolism and Inducing Ferroptosis

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common malignant tumors in the world. GPx4, as the core regulator of ferroptosis, has become a potential molecular target for developing anticancer agents. In the present study, we found that GPx4 was overexpressed and negatively correlated with poor prognosis in GC, while it was associated with the GC development. Molecular docking and structure-based virtual screening assays were used to screen potential GPx4 inhibitors, and we identified a novel GPx4 inhibitor, polyphyllin B (PB), which can induce ferroptosis by down-regulating GPx4 expression in GC cells. It has also been shown to inhibit cell proliferation, suppress invasion and migration, induce apoptosis, and block the cell cycle progression in GC cells in vitro. Then, immunofluorescence and western blotting assay confirmed that PB can regulate the expression of LC3B, TFR1, NOCA4 and FTH1 in vitro, which suggested that suggest that PB may increase the level of Fe²⁺ by transporting Fe³⁺ into the cell by TFR1 and promoting NCOA4-dependent iron autophagy. In addition, PB can also suppresses tumor growth in an orthotopic mouse model of GC via regulating the expression of GPx4, TFR1, NOCA4 and FTH1 in vivo. In summary, we confirmed that GPx4 may be a potential target for GC treatment, PB may be a novel and promising drug for the treatment of GC, which shows good antitumor efficacy without causing significant host toxicity via inducing ferroptosis in both gastric cancer cells and mouse models.

Therapeutic effects on cancer of the active ingredients in rhizoma paridis

Cancer is a major threat to human health, with high mortality and a low cure rate, continuously challenging public health worldwide. Extensive clinical application of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for patients with poor outcomes of radiotherapy and chemotherapy provides a new direction in anticancer therapy. Anticancer mechanisms of the active ingredients in TCM have also been extensively studied in the medical field. As a type of TCM against cancer, Rhizoma Paridis (Chinese name: Chonglou) has important antitumor effects in clinical application. The main active ingredients of Rhizoma Paridis (e.g., total saponins, polyphyllin I, polyphyllin II, polyphyllin VI, and polyphyllin VII) have shown strong antitumor activities in various cancers, such as breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and gastric cancer. Rhizoma Paridis also has low concentrations of certain other active ingredients with antitumor effects, such as saponins polyphyllin E, polyphyllin H, Paris polyphylla-22, gracillin, and formosanin-C. Many researchers have studied the anticancer mechanism of Rhizoma Paridis and its active ingredients. This review article describes research progress regarding the molecular mechanism and antitumor effects of the active ingredients in Rhizoma Paridis, suggesting that various active ingredients in Rhizoma Paridis may be potentially therapeutic against cancer.

Antiviral Innate Immune Responses in Autoimmunity: Receptors, Pathways, and Therapeutic Targeting

Innate immune receptors sense nucleic acids derived from viral pathogens or self-constituents and initiate an immune response, which involves, among other things, the secretion of cytokines including interferon (IFN) and the activation of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). This robust and well-coordinated immune response is mediated by the innate immune cells and is critical to preserving and restoring homeostasis. Like an antiviral response, during an autoimmune disease, aberrations of immune tolerance promote inflammatory responses to self-components, such as nucleic acids and immune complexes (ICs), leading to the secretion of cytokines, inflammation, and tissue damage. The aberrant immune response within the inflammatory milieu of the autoimmune diseases may lead to defective viral responses, predispose to autoimmunity, or precipitate a flare of an existing autoimmune disease. Herein, we review the literature on the crosstalk between innate antiviral immune responses and autoimmune responses and discuss the pitfalls and challenges regarding the therapeutic targeting of the mechanisms involved.

Traditional Tibetan medicine: therapeutic potential in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a severe inflammatory autoimmune disease characterized by the failed spontaneous resolution of inflammation. The induction of immune regulation and resolution of inflammatory pathways are effective in alleviating inflammation in RA. As the oldest medical system in the world, traditional Tibetan medicine (TTM) has a long history of preventing and treating RA. This review provides a comprehensive overview of medicinal plants with anti-RA activity in the TTM system, using classic books of Tibetan medicine, modern research literature, and drug standards. A total of 27 species have been found to be effective in treating RA, including Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr., Terminalia chehula Retz., P. hookeri (C. B. Clarke) Hock.), and Aconitum pendulum Busch. Alkaloids, flavonoids, polyphenols, and terpenoids have turned out to be the major bioactive components for RA treatment. The inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression by mediating the NF-κB, MAPK, and JAK/STAT pathways is the core mechanism in RA treatment. In conclusion, this review provides key information and research perspectives for further research on the anti-RA effects of TTM.

The Role of Inflammation in Cognitive Impairment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome

Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) has become a major worldwide public health concern, given its global prevalence. It has clear links with multiple comorbidities and mortality. Cognitive impairment is one related comorbidity causing great pressure on individuals and society. The clinical manifestations of cognitive impairment in OSAS include decline in attention/vigilance, verbal–visual memory loss, visuospatial/structural ability impairment, and executive dysfunction. It has been proven that chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) may be a main cause of cognitive impairment in OSAS. Inflammation plays important roles in CIH-induced cognitive dysfunction. Furthermore, the nuclear factor kappa B and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha pathways play significant roles in this inflammatory mechanism. Continuous positive airway pressure is an effective therapy for OSAS; however, its effect on cognitive impairment is suboptimal. Therefore, in this review, we address the role inflammation plays in the development of neuro-impairment in OSAS and the association between OSAS and cognitive impairment to provide an overview of its pathophysiology. We believe that furthering the understanding of the inflammatory mechanisms involved in OSAS-associated cognitive impairment could lead to the development of appropriate and effective therapy.

Polyphyllin I improves myocardial damage in coronary artery disease via modulating lipid metabolism and myocardial apoptosis

Polyphyllin I (PPI) is a famous traditional medicine ingredient, which has been explored in wide range of areas. Nevertheless, whether PPI exerts any functions in coronary artery disease (CAD) is still uncertified. Herein, we probed the effect and mechanism of PPI on lipid metabolism and myocardial dysfunction in myocardial cells and CAD rat model. Hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R)-treated H9c2 cells model was constructed for the in vitro experiments, and CAD model in vivo was established by high-fat feeding. After management with PPI, the correlated factors of lipid metabolism and myocardial function were investigated. The apoptosis of myocardial cells was assessed by Annexin V-FITC/PI kit and TUNEL staining. The apoptosis-associated factors (caspase 3, cleaved caspase 3, Bax, and Bcl-2) were tested by Western blot analysis. The MEK/ERK inhibitor was applied and the functions of MEK/ERK pathway in myocardial damage were investigated. H/R-treated H9c2 cells model was constructed for the in vitro experiments, and CAD model in vivo was established by high-fat feeding. After management with PPI, the correlated factors of lipid metabolism and myocardial function were investigated. The apoptosis of myocardial cells was assessed by Annexin V-FITC/PI kit and TUNEL staining. The apoptosis-associated factors (caspase 3, cleaved caspase 3, Bax, and Bcl-2) were tested by Western blot analysis. The MEK/ERK inhibitor was applied and the functions of MEK/ERK pathway in myocardial damage were investigated. PPI improved lipid metabolism disorder in H/R-induced H9c2 cells or in CAD rat model. Additionally, PPI attenuated myocardial dysfunction in CAD rats via enhancing left ventricular systolic pressure, maximum rate of change of left ventricular pressure (±dp/dt_max ), and arterial blood flow (CF). The apoptosis of myocardial cells was lessened by PPI management, which was further verified by reducing Bax and cleaved caspase 3 expression. Furthermore, PD0325901 (MEK/ERK inhibitor) weakened the effect of PPI on myocardial dysfunction, lipid metabolism, and myocardial cell apoptosis in CAD rats. The research confirmed the protective effect of PPI on myocardial damage in CAD, which was regulated by MEK/ERK pathway.

Analysis of drug efficacy for inflammatory skin on an organ-chip system

Bacterial skin infections cause a variety of common skin diseases that require drugs that are safer than antibiotics and have fewer side effects. However, for evaluating skin disease drugs, human skin tissue in vitro constructed traditionally on Transwell has inefficient screening ability because of its fragile barrier function. With mechanical forces and dynamic flow, the organ-on-a-chip system became an innovative, automatic, and modular way to construct pathological models and analyze effective pharmaceutical ingredients in vitro. In this research, we integrated skin extracellular matrix and skin cells into a microfluidic chip to construct a biomimetic “interface-controlled-skin-on-chip” system (IC-SoC), which constructed a stable air–liquid interface (ALI) and necessary mechanical signals for the development of human skin equivalents. The results demonstrated that in the microfluidic system with a flowing microenvironment and ALI, the skin tissue formed in vitro could differentiate into more mature tissue morphological structures and improve barrier function. Then, following exposing the skin surface on the IC-SoC to the stimulation of Propionibacterium acnes (P.acnes) and SLS (sodium lauryl sulfate), the barrier function decreased, as well as inflammatory factors such as IL-1α, IL-8, and PEG2 increased in the medium channel of the IC-SoC. After this pathological skin model was treated with dexamethasone and polyphyllin H, the results showed that polyphyllin H had a significant repair effect on the skin barrier and a significant inhibition effect on the release of inflammation-related cytokines, and the effects were more prominent than dexamethasone. This automated microfluidic system delivers an efficient tissue model for toxicological applications and drug evaluation for bacterial-infected damaged skin instead of animals.

Exosomes: A novel insight into traditional Chinese medicine

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles and play an essential role in the mediation of intercellular communication both in health and disease. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has historically been used to maintain human health and treat various diseases up till today. The interplay between exosomes and TCM has attracted researchers’ growing attention. By integrating the available evidence, TCM formulas and compounds isolated from TCM as exosome modulators have beneficial effects on multiple disorders, such as tumors, kidney diseases, and hepatic disease, which may associate with inhibiting cells proliferation, anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, and attenuating fibrosis. Exosomes, a natural delivery system, are essential in delivering compounds isolated from TCM to target cells or tissues. Moreover, exosomes may be the potential biomarkers for TCM syndromes, providing strategies for TCM treatment. These findings may provide a novel insight into TCM from exosomes and serve as evidence for better understanding and development of TCM.

Mechanical Stretch Promotes Macrophage Polarization and Inflammation via the RhoA-ROCK/NF-κB Pathway

Macrophages play an essential role in the pathogenesis of most inflammatory diseases. Recent studies have shown that mechanical load can influence macrophage function, leading to excessive and uncontrolled inflammation and even systemic damage, including cardiovascular disease and knee osteoarthritis. However, the molecular mechanism remains unclear. In this study, murine RAW264.7 cells were treated with mechanical stretch (MS) using the Flexcell-5000T Tension System. The expression of inflammatory factors and cytokine release were measured by RT-qPCR, ELISA, and Western blotting. The protein expression of NF-κB p65, Iκb-α, p-Iκb-α, RhoA, ROCK1, and ROCK2 was also detected by Western blotting. Then, Flow cytometry was used to detect the proportion of macrophage subsets. Meanwhile, Y-27632 dihydrochloride, a ROCK inhibitor, was added to knockdown ROCK signal transduction in cells. Our results demonstrated that MS upregulated mRNA expression and increased the secretion levels of proinflammatory factors iNOS, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6. Additionally, MS significantly increased the proportion of CD11b+CD86+ and CD11b+CD206+ subsets in RAW264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, the protein expression of RhoA, ROCK1, ROCK2, NF-κB p65, and IκB-α increased in MS-treated RAW264.7 cells, as well as the IL-6 and iNOS. In contrast, ROCK inhibitor significantly blocked the activation of RhoA-ROCK and NF-κB pathway, decreased the protein expression of IL-6 and iNOS, reduced the proportion of CD11b+CD86+ cells subpopulation, and increased the proportion of CD11b+CD206+ cell subpopulation after MS. These data indicate that mechanical stretch can regulate the RAW264.7 macrophage polarization and enhance inflammatory responses in vitro, which may contribute to activation the RhoA-ROCK/NF-κB pathway.

Semaphorin 3G exacerbates joint inflammation through the accumulation and proliferation of macrophages in the synovium

Objectives

Methotrexate (MTX) is an anchor drug for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, the precise mechanisms by which MTX stalls RA progression and alleviates the ensuing disease effects remain unknown. The aim of the present study was to identify novel therapeutic target molecules, the expression patterns of which are affected by MTX in patients with RA.

Methods

CD4⁺ T cells from 28 treatment-naïve patients with RA before and 3 months after the initiation of MTX treatment were subjected to DNA microarray analyses. The expression levels of semaphorin 3G, a differentially expressed gene, and its receptor, neuropilin-2, were evaluated in the RA synovium and collagen-induced arthritis synovium. Collagen-induced arthritis and collagen antibody-induced arthritis were induced in semaphorin3G-deficient mice and control mice, and the clinical score, histological score, and serum cytokines were assessed. The migration and proliferation of semaphorin 3G-stimulated bone marrow-derived macrophages were analyzed in vitro. The effect of local semaphorin 3G administration on the clinical score and number of infiltrating macrophages during collagen antibody-induced arthritis was evaluated.

Results

Semaphorin 3G expression in CD4⁺ T cells was downregulated by MTX treatment in RA patients. It was determined that semaphorin 3G is expressed in RA but not in the osteoarthritis synovium; its receptor neuropilin-2 is primarily expressed on activated macrophages. Semaphorin3G deficiency ameliorated collagen-induced arthritis and collagen antibody-induced arthritis. Semaphorin 3G stimulation enhanced the migration and proliferation of bone marrow-derived macrophages. Local administration of semaphorin 3G deteriorated collagen antibody-induced arthritis and increased the number of infiltrating macrophages.

Conclusions

Upregulation of semaphorin 3G in the RA synovium is a novel mechanism that exacerbates joint inflammation, leading to further deterioration, through macrophage accumulation.

Application and prospect of targeting innate immune sensors in the treatment of autoimmune diseases

Dysregulation of auto-reactive T cells and autoantibody-producing B cells and excessive inflammation are responsible for the occurrence and development of autoimmune diseases. The suppression of autoreactive T cell activation and autoantibody production, as well as inhibition of inflammatory cytokine production have been utilized to ameliorate autoimmune disease symptoms. However, the existing treatment strategies are not sufficient to cure autoimmune diseases since patients can quickly suffer a relapse following the end of treatments. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including Toll-like receptors (TLRs), Nod-like receptors (NLRs), RIG-I like receptors (RLRs), C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) and various nucleic acid sensors, are expressed in both innate and adaptive immune cells and are involved in the development of autoimmune diseases. Here, we have summarized advances of PRRs signaling pathways, association between PRRs and autoimmune diseases, application of inhibitors targeting PRRs and the corresponding signaling molecules relevant to strategies targeting autoimmune diseases. This review emphasizes the roles of different PRRs in activating both innate and adaptive immunity, which can coordinate to trigger autoimmune responses. The review may also prompt the formulation of novel ideas for developing therapeutic strategies against autoimmune diseases by targeting PRRs-related signals.

Cynarin suppresses gouty arthritis induced by monosodium urate crystals

The study is aimed to determine the effects of cynarin (Cyn) on mice with gouty arthritis (GA) induced by monosodium urate (MSU). We measured swelling in the hind paws of mice in vivo using Vernier calipers and ultrasound. The liver, kidney, and hind paws were stained with hematoxylin-eosin, and M1 type macrophages were detected in the hind paws using anti-F4/80 and anti-iNOS antibodies. The mRNA expression of inflammatory factors in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) and in the hind paws was detected via quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasomes and the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways were analyzed via western blotting. Cyn was detected in vitro using Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8). Cyn treatment reduced hind paw swelling and M1 macrophage infiltration, suppressed the mRNA expression of inflammatory factors, and inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation in vivo, in addition to inhibiting the phosphorylation of IKKa/β, p65, and c-Jun NH 2-terminal kinase (JNK). Furthermore, Cyn exerted anti-inflammatory and anti-swelling effects in mice with GA by regulating the NF-κB and JNK pathways and NLRP3 inflammasomes.

Influence of Melatonin on Behavioral and Neurological Function of Rats with Focal Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury via the JNK/FoxO3a/Bim Pathway

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the influence of melatonin on behavioral and neurological function of rats with focal cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury via the JNK/FoxO3a/Bim pathway.

METHODS

One hundred and twenty healthy male SD rats were randomized into the model group (Model: the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model was constructed and received an equal volume of normal saline containing 5% DMSO), sham operation group (Sham: received no treatment except normal feeding), and low, medium, and high dose of melatonin group (L-MT, M-MT, and H-MT intraperitoneally injected 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg melatonin 30 min after IR, respectively), with 24 rats in each group. Following 24 h of reperfusion, the rats in each of the above groups were tested for neurological deficit symptoms and behavioral changes to screen the rats included in the study. HE and TUNEL stainings were performed to observe pathological changes. Levels of oxidative stress-related indexes, inflammatory factor-related indexes, nuclear factor-κB p65 (NF-κB p65), and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in the rat brain were measured by ELISA. The JNK/FoxO3a/Bim pathway-related proteins as well as Bcl-2, Caspase-3, and Bax were examined using Western blot.

RESULTS

Detection of behavioral indicators showed that the MACO model was successfully constructed in rats. L-MT, M-MT, and L-MT groups presented reduced malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (ROS), tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) α, interleukin- (IL-) 6, IL-1β, IFN-γ, NF-κB p65, and apoptosis compared with the Model group (P < 0.05), and the improvement degree was better in the M-MT group versus the L-HT group. Bcl-2 protein expression in the brain tissue of L-MT, M-MT, and H-MT groups increased significantly, while Bax, Caspase-3, p-JNK, p-FoxO3a, and Bim protein expression declined markedly, versus the Model group (P < 0.05). The changes of indexes were greater in the M-MT group compared with that in the L-MT group. No significant difference was observed in all the above indexes between the M-MT group and the H-MT group (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

In the MACO rat model, melatonin can effectively reduce Bax and Caspase-3 levels by modulating the JNK/FoxO3a/Bim pathway, inhibit neuronal apoptosis, and alleviate neurological deficits by reducing the release of proinflammatory mediators, with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. In addition, 20 mg/kg is the optimal melatonin concentration.

Wilforlide A ameliorates the progression of rheumatoid arthritis by inhibiting M1 macrophage polarization

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease with increased M1 macrophages. The classical activated M1 macrophages produce various cytokines to control inflammation. Wilforlide A is a natural product that displays anti-inflammatory activities. However, the effect of Wilforlide A on RA progression and the potential mechanisms are unclear. Herein, the collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse was used as an experimental model of RA. The administration of Wilforlide A reduced clinical scores, joint swelling and histological damage in ankle joints of RA mice. The secreted pro-inflammatory factors (MCP1, GM-CSF and M-CSF) and M1 biomarker iNOS in synovium were inhibited by Wilforlide A. In vitro, macrophages deriving from THP-1 cells were stimulated with LPS/IFN-γ to mimic M1 polarization. Similarly, Wilforlide A blocked macrophages polarizing towards M1 subsets. The in vitro results demonstrated that Wilforlide A suppressed LPS/IFN-γ-induced TLR4 upregulation, IκBα degradation and NF-κB p65 activation. In addition, TAK242 (a TLR4 inhibitor) treatment caused a similar inhibitory effect on M1 polarization with Wilforlide A, whereas it was less than the combination of TAK242 and Wilforlide A. Therefore, this work supports that Wilforlide A ameliorates M1 macrophage polarization in RA, which is partially mediated by TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway inactivation.

β-arrestin-2 alleviates rheumatoid arthritis injury by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation and NF- κB pathway in macrophages

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory joint disorder that inflicts damage to the joints of the hands and wrist. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effect of β-Arrestin-2 (βArr2) on RA in vivo and in vitro. The βArr2 adenovirus (βArr2-Ad) or the control (Con-Ad) was injected into the ankle joint cavity of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mice. According to the results, an improvement was shown in the symptoms and pathological injury of RA after an upregulation of βArr2. Correspondingly, the inflammatory response was attenuated, as evidenced by the decreased serum pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and NF-κB pathway-related proteins. Nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat and pyrin domain containing receptor 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation was inhibited in CIA mice treated with βArr2-Ad injection, as reflected by the diminished IL-18 level and declined protein levels of inflammasome components in the ankle joint. Likewise, the anti-inflammatory effect of macrophages was also validated by in vitro experiments. In summary, βArr2 effectively ameliorates ankle inflammation in CIA mice via NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome, providing theoretical and clinical basis for RA therapy.

Integrated pharmacology reveals the mechanism of action of Bu-Shen-Tong-Du prescription against collagen-induced arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease. Bu-Shen-Tong-Du prescription (BSP) has traditionally been used in to treat RA but its underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we explored the potential mechanisms of BSP in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rats, a classic animal model of RA. We employed an integrated pharmacology approach in combination with network pharmacology, 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) metabolomics, and biochemical analyses to determine the mechanisms of BSP for treating RA. We found that BSP can regulate immunity and inflammation by decreasing the spleen index; inhibiting hyperplasia of the white pulp; reducing the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17A, and IFN-γ; and increasing the levels of IL-10 in the serum. Network pharmacology was utilized to predict related signal transduction pathways of BSP in RA treatment. 1H NMR metabolomics of the serum confirmed that BSP regulated energy metabolism and amino acid metabolism. Finally, we validated the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling pathway using immunohistochemical methods, which demonstrated that BSP controlled RA-induced inflammation by inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. These results confirm the therapeutic effect of BSP in a CIA rat model, which is exerted via the inhibition of the inflammation and the improvement of the immune function, balancing energy metabolism and amino acid metabolism, and inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. This study provides an experimental basis for using BSP as a combinatorial drug to inhibit inflammation and regulate immunity in the treatment of RA.

Quercetin-mediated SIRT1 activation attenuates collagen-induced mice arthritis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Herba taxilli (HT, Sangjisheng in Chinese), which is composed of the dried stems and leaves of Taxillus chinensis (DC.) Danser, has been commonly used to treat inflammation and arthritis in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Quercetin (Que) is a major active flavonoid component isolated from HT and is one of the quality control indexes of HT. In the clinical practice of TCM, formulas containing HT are commonly used to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Recent studies have shown that Que exerts antiarthritic effects. However, the mechanism by which Que treatment affects RA is not fully understood.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to explore the antiarthritic activity of Que in a collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model and investigate the underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The antiarthritic activity of Que was evaluated in a CIA mouse model by determining the paw clinical arthritis scores and left ankle thicknesses and by conducting micro-PET imaging and histopathological analysis of ankle joint tissues. The proinflammatory cytokine (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8, IL-13, IL-17) levels in the serum and ankle joint tissues were measured by ELISA. Mitochondrial oxidative stress was assessed by biochemical methods. Mitochondrial biogenesis was analysed by RT-qPCR. The protein levels of silent information regulator 1 (SIRT1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), nuclear respiratory factor 1 (NRF1), mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM), high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), p38, phospho-p38, extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK)-1/2, phospho-ERK1/2, p65, and phospho-p65 in ankle joint tissues were detected by Western blot analysis. A total of 30 RA patients were recruited to investigate the relationship between the disease activity score (DAS28) and the SIRT1, PGC-1α, NRF1, and HMGB1 plasma levels.

RESULTS

Que treatment decreased the clinical score and left ankle thickness of CIA mice, attenuated the synovial inflammation and hyperplasia and bone/cartilage destruction in ankle joints, and decreased the secretion of IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8, IL-13, and IL-17. Mechanistically, Que treatment improved impaired mitochondrial biogenesis and mitochondrial function by regulating the SIRT1/PGC-1α/NRF1/TFAM pathway and inhibited inflammation via the HMGB1/TLR4/p38/ERK1/2/NF-κB p65 pathway. Notably, epidemiological data revealed correlations between abnormal circulating levels of SIRT1, PGC-1α, NRF1, HMGB1 and RA disease activity in patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggested a potential role of Que as a dietary therapeutic drug for RA treatment that may act through SIRT1 to target mitochondrial biogenesis. Additionally, the role of impaired mitochondrial biogenesis in RA was evaluated.

MiR-1224-5p attenuates polycystic ovary syndrome through inhibiting NOD-like receptor protein 3 inflammasome activation via targeting Forkhead box O 1

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine disorder that poses a great threat to women's health. MiR-1224-5p is downregulated in the follicular fluid of patients with PCOS, but its role remains largely unknown. In this study, mice were treated with dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) to establish an in vivo model of PCOS. We found that enhanced activation of NLRP3 inflammasome was accompanied by downregulation of miR-1224-5p in ovarian tissue of PCOS mice. The effect of miR-1224-5p was further explored in TNF-α-treated human granulosa-like tumor (KGN) cells. Upregulation of miR-1224-5p suppressed TNF-α-induced secretion of DHEA and testosterone. MiR-1224-5p attenuated TNF-α-induced inflammation by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation, IL-1β synthesis, and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65 nuclear translocation. Notably, miR-1224-5p decreased the expression of Forkhead box O 1 (FOXO1) and its downstream gene thioredoxin interaction protein (TXNIP). Luciferase reporter assay confirmed FOXO1 as a target of miR-1224-5p. Upregulation of FOXO1 abolished miR-1224-5p-induced activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, demonstrating that miR-1224-5p might inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation through regulating FOXO1. This study provided novel insights into the pathogenesis of PCOS and suggested that miR-1224-5p might be a promising target for treating PCOS.

Polyphyllin I Inhibits Propionibacterium acnes-Induced IL-8 Secretion in HaCaT Cells by Downregulating the CD36/NOX1/ROS/NLRP3/IL-1β Pathway

Acne vulgaris (AV) is a chronic skin disease involving inflammation of the pilosebaceous units. Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) hypercolonization is one pathogenic factor for AV. P. acnes that triggers interleukin-1β (IL-1β) by activating the pyrin domain-containing 3 protein (NLRP3) inflammasome of the NOD-like receptor family in human monocytes. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) acts as a trigger for the production of IL-8 and activates theNLRP3 inflammasome. IL-8 promotes the metastasis and multiplication of different cancerous cells, whereas keratinocyte proliferation and migration contribute to the progression of AV. A steroidal saponin called polyphyllin I (PPI) that is extracted from Paris polyphylla's rhizomes has anti-inflammatory properties. This study investigates the regulatory role of P. acnes in the secretion of IL-8 mediated by the CD36/NADPH oxidase 1 (NOX1)/ROS/NLRP3/IL-1β pathway and the effects of PPI on the CD36/NOX1/ROS/NLRP3/IL-1β/IL-8 pathway and human keratinocyte proliferation and migration. HaCaT cells were cultured and stimulated with 10⁸ CFU/ml of P. acnes for 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, and 36 hours. P. acnes induced IL-8 secretion from HaCaT cells via the CD36/NOX1/ROS/NLRP3/IL-1β pathway. PPI inhibited the CD36/NLRP3/NOX1/ROS/IL-8/IL-1β pathway and HaCaT cell proliferation and migration. PPI alleviates P. acnes-induced inflammatory responses and human keratinocyte proliferation and migration, implying a novel potential therapy for AV.

Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Activities of Steroid Saponins Isolated from Rhizoma Paridis

Rhizoma Paridis, the rhizome of liliaceous plants Paris polyphylla, is one of the most commonly used herbal drugs in China. Phytochemical and pharmacological studies have shown that steroid saponins were the major effective ingredients of Rhizoma Paridis to exert antitumor, anti-inflammatory, hemostasis, and antifibrosis functions. In this review, we discussed the chemical structures of steroid saponins and their related biological activity and mechanisms in cellular and animal models, aiming to provide a reference for future comprehensive exploitation and development of saponins.

The Natural Compound Notopterol Binds and Targets JAK2/3 to Ameliorate Inflammation and Arthritis

The traditional Chinese medicinal herb Notopterygium incisum Ting ex H.T. Chang has anti-rheumatism activity, and a mass spectrometry assay of patients' serum after administration of the herb revealed that notopterol is the most abundant component enriched. However, the functions of notopterol and its molecular target in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) treatment remain unknown. Here, we show in different RA mouse strains that both oral and intraperitoneal administration of notopterol result in significant therapeutic effects. Mechanistically, notopterol directly binds Janus kinase (JAK)2 and JAK3 kinase domains to inhibit JAK/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK-STAT) activation, leading to reduced production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Critically, combination therapy using both notopterol and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) blocker results in enhanced therapeutic effects compared to using TNF blocker alone. We demonstrate that notopterol ameliorates RA pathology by targeting JAK-STAT signaling, raising the possibility that notopterol could be effective in treating other diseases characterized by aberrant JAK-STAT signaling pathway.

TGF-β1-modified MSC-derived exosomal miR-135b attenuates cartilage injury via promoting M2 synovial macrophage polarization by targeting MAPK6

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common joint disease with an unsatisfactory therapy outcome and characterized by the degradation of articular cartilage and synovial inflammation. Here, we isolated bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) from rat's bone marrow and BMSC-derived exosome (BMSCs-Exo) from BMSCs successfully. MiR-135b was proved to be highly expressed in TGF-β1-stimulated BMSC-derived exosomes (BMSCs-Exo^TGF-β1). Then, our results demonstrated that BMSCs-Exo^TGF-β1 reduced OA-induced upregulation of pro-inflammatory factors in rat's serum and damage in cartilage tissues, which was then reversed by miR-135b decreasing. Subsequently, we found that the OA-resulted M1 polarization of synovial macrophages (SMs) was repressed by BMSCs-Exo^TGF-β1, this effect of BMSCs-Exo^TGF-β1 was limited by miR-135b decreasing. We also proved that M2 polarization of SMs can be induced by miR-135b mimics. Furthermore, we found that the promotory effect of miR-135b and BMSCs-Exo^TGF-β1 on M2 SMs polarization was reversed by increasing of MAPK6. Overall, our data showed that BMSCs-Exo^TGF-β1 attenuated cartilage damage in OA rats through carrying highly expressed miR-135b. Mechanistically, miR-135b promoted M2 polarization of SMs through targeting MAPK6, thus improving cartilage damage. Our study provided a novel regulatory mechanism of BMSCs-Exo in OA development and revealed a new potential treatment target of OA.

Paris polyphylla ethanol extract induces G2/M arrest and suppresses migration and invasion in bladder cancer

BACKGROUND

Paris polyphylla is a traditional Chinese medicinal herb with multiple antitumor activities, but the role of P. polyphylla in bladder cancer (BC) is under investigation. This study aims to examine the antitumor activities of P. polyphylla ethanol extract (PPE) on BC cells and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Viable cells were counted using the trypan blue exclusion assay. The cell cycle was analyzed using flow cytometry, and scratch wound-healing and transwell assays were used to evaluate cell migration and invasion abilities, respectively. The protein expression levels were determined by western blotting. A xenograft model was used to assess the in vivo inhibitory effect of PPE on BC tumor growth.

RESULTS

Our results showed that PPE inhibited the growth of BC cells in vivo and in vitro. Mechanistically, PPE regulated the levels of cell cycle-associated proteins, with PPE-induced G2/M phase arrest occurring through cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1 (CDKN1A) accumulation and cyclin B1 (CCNB1)/cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) inhibition. BC tumor growth was also inhibited by PPE treatment. Moreover, the migration and invasion abilities of J82 cells were suppressed through modulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) regulatory factors with upregulation of cadherin-1 (CDH1) and downregulation of cadherin-2 (CDH2), snail family transcriptional repressor 2 (SNAI2), and twist family bHLH transcription factor 1 (TWIST1).

CONCLUSIONS

PPE inhibited cell growth, induced G2/M arrest, and suppressed the migration and invasion of J82 cells. BC tumor growth in vivo was also inhibited by PPE. Our results lay the foundation for further studies on the antitumor mechanisms of PPE.

Anti-arthritis effect of berberine associated with regulating energy metabolism of macrophages through AMPK/ HIF-1α pathway

Berberine (BBR) is the effective constituent of Cortex phellodendri and was characterized as an excellent anti-microbial agent with significant anti-inflammatory effects. Previously, we had demonstrated that BBR alleviated the inflammatory response in adjuvant-induced arthritis (AA) rats by regulating polarization of macrophages. However, the exact mechanics by which BBR regulates macrophage polarization remained unclear. Here, we showed that BBR treatment had little influence on total number of macrophages in joints of AA rats, but increased the proportion of M2 macrophages and decreased the proportion of M1 macrophages. Meanwhile, we found BBR up-regulated the expression of AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylation (p-AMPK) and down-regulated the expression of Hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) in synovial macrophages of AA rats. In vitro, using LPS-stimulated peritoneal macrophages from normal rats, we also verified that pretreatment with BBR promoted transition from M1 to M2 by up-regulating the expression of p-AMPK and suppressing the expression of HIF-1α. Compound C (an AMPK inhibitor) could abrogate the inhibition of BBR on migration of macrophages. Glycolysis of M1 suppressed by BBR through decreasing lactate export, glucose consumption, and increasing intracellular ATP content, which was remarkably reversed by Compound C. These findings indicated that anti-arthritis effect of BBR is associated with regulating energy metabolism of macrophages through AMPK/HIF-1α pathway.

The protective effect of polyphyllin I on myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats

Background

Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury has become a global public health concern. An increasing amount of evidence has shown that polyphyllin I (PPI) has anti-apoptotic and antioxidant functions. This study was performed to evaluate the cardioprotective effects of PPI in a rat model of myocardial I/R injury and the underlying mechanism.

Methods

We exposed induced a rat model of I/R injury by exposing rat hearts to left anterior descending coronary artery ligation for 30 min, followed by 24 h of reperfusion. Cardiac function was analyzed by echocardiography and HE staining. Myocardial apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress were detected to analyze the PPI's role in I/R injury.

Results

The results showed that pretreatment with PPI improved impaired histological morphology, as shown by histopathological examination. Echocardiography analysis showed that PPI increased the levels of HR, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), and left ventricular wall thickness (LVWT), accompanied by decreased left ventricular end-systolic volume (LVESV). Also, PPI decreased the expression of CK-MB, Mb, cTnI, and LDH. Specifically, PPI also changed the expression of apoptotic makers (Caspase-3, Bax, and Bcl-2), inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, and IL-10) and oxidative stress markers (SOD, GSH, ROS, and MDA). Notably, western blot (WB) showed that PPI treatment inhibited the phosphorylation activity of NF-κB p65.

Conclusions

The findings showed that PPI exerted a favorable protective effect on I/R injury by inhibiting the inflammatory response and oxidative stress. It offered new drug candidates for the treatment of myocardial I/R injury.