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Lechner A, Kumbrink J, Walz C, Jung A, Baumeister P, Flach S. Molecular characterization of the evolution of premalignant lesions in the upper aerodigestive tract. Front Oncol 2024; 14:1364958. [PMID: 38706595 PMCID: PMC11067708 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2024.1364958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Early relapse and development of metastatic disease are some of the primary reasons for the poor prognosis of patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). HNSCC is a heterogeneous disease which may develop in large premalignant fields of genetically altered cells. Yet knowing which individuals will progress and develop clinically significant cancers during their lifetimes remains one of the most important challenges of reducing HNSCC morbidity and mortality. To further elucidate the molecular mechanisms, we performed a focused analysis of the genome and immune microenvironment from multiple, matched normal squamous tissue, premalignant lesions, as well as primary and recurrent tumors from seven patients with p16-negative HNSCC. Methods We performed targeted panel Next Generation Sequencing (161 genes) to analyze somatic variants from sequentially collected, matched formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue (normal, premalignant, HNSCC) from two patients. These samples plus samples from five additional patients were analyzed with the Nanostring PanCancer Immune Panel. In addition, we performed shallow whole genome sequencing (0.5x coverage on average) on samples from three of these patients. Patients were, apart from one case, primarily treated with curative-intent surgery, and received subsequent adjuvant treatment, if indicated. Results The most frequently mutated genes were TP53 and NOTCH1. Other mutated genes included NOTCH3 and CDKN2A, among others. A significant number of mutations were private to dysplasia and invasive carcinoma, respectively, however, almost 20% were shared between them. Increasing genomic instability was observed when comparing histologically normal squamous mucosa with higher levels of dysplasia. High-grade dysplasia showed similarly rearranged genomes as invasive carcinoma. Pathways related to interferon alpha and gamma response were upregulated even in moderate dysplastic lesions with increasing expression in higher grades of dysplasia and carcinoma. SPINK5, a known tumor suppressor gene in HNSCC, was already downregulated in low-grade dysplastic lesions, indicating an early deactivation in the evolution of the disease. Conclusion Genomic alterations as well as aberrant immune gene expression can be observed early in the evolution of tumors of the upper aerodigestive tract, highlighting the potential for targeting early mechanisms of disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Lechner
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) Munich University Hospital, Munich, Germany
| | - Jörg Kumbrink
- Department of Pathology, LMU Munich University Hospital, Munich, Germany
| | - Christoph Walz
- Department of Pathology, LMU Munich University Hospital, Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Jung
- Department of Pathology, LMU Munich University Hospital, Munich, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Philipp Baumeister
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) Munich University Hospital, Munich, Germany
| | - Susanne Flach
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) Munich University Hospital, Munich, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Munich, Munich, Germany
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Zhang JW, Wang YN, Zhong ML, Liang MR. Kynureninase knockdown inhibits cisplatin resistance in vivo and in vitro and impacts the prognosis of cervical adenocarcinoma. Cell Div 2023; 18:15. [PMID: 37742026 PMCID: PMC10518096 DOI: 10.1186/s13008-023-00098-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chemotherapy resistance is a leading cause of treatment failure in cases of cervical adenocarcinoma (ADC), and no effective treatment approach has yet been found. We previously identified the differentially expressed kynureninase (KYNU) mRNA in cervical adenocarcinoma cells (HeLa) and cervical adenocarcinoma cisplatin resistance cells (HeLa/DDP) using gene chips. However, the role and potential mechanism of KYNU in the cisplatin resistance of cervical adenocarcinoma remain unclear. METHODS We verified the expression of KYNU in the cells and tissues of ADC patients and analyzed its correlation with patient prognosis. A stable HeLa/DDP cell line with KYNU mRNA knockdown was constructed. We then used a CCK8 assay to detect cell survival, a transwell assay to evaluate cell migration and proliferation and flow cytometry to measure apoptosis. The effect of KYNU silence on cisplatin sensitivity was evaluated in an orthotopic model of metastatic ADC. Immunohistochemistry was performed to determine the changes in relevant drug resistance-associated protein expression, aiming to explore the underlying mechanism of KYNU-mediated drug resistance. RESULTS KYNU is overexpressed in HeLa/DDP cells and tissues and is associated with the poor prognoses of patients with ADC. After KYNU mRNA knockdown, the invasion, migration, and proliferation of HeLa/DDP cells in the cisplatin environment significantly reduced, while the apoptosis rate of HeLa/DDP cells significantly increased. Meanwhile, KYNU knockdown improved the DDP sensitivity of ADC in vivo. Furthermore, silencing KYNU decreased the expressions of CD34 and the drug-resistance related proteins P-gp, MRP1, and GST-π and increased the level of the proapoptotic regulatory protein Bax. CONCLUSION KYNU deficiency enhanced DDP sensitivity by suppressing cell proliferation, migration, and invasion and promoting apoptosis in DDP-resistant ADC cells in vitro. Furthermore, KYNU knockdown improved the drug sensitivity of ADC in vivo. The results showed that KYNU is involved in the chemotherapy resistance of cervical adenocarcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Wen Zhang
- Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ya-Nan Wang
- Oncology Department of Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, No. 318, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, 330006, Jiangxi, China
| | - Mei-Ling Zhong
- Oncology Department of Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, No. 318, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, 330006, Jiangxi, China
| | - Mei-Rong Liang
- Oncology Department of Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, No. 318, Bayi Avenue, Nanchang, 330006, Jiangxi, China.
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Raudenska M, Balvan J, Hanelova K, Bugajova M, Masarik M. Cancer-associated fibroblasts: Mediators of head and neck tumor microenvironment remodeling. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2023; 1878:188940. [PMID: 37331641 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2023.188940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are involved in critical aspects of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) pathogenesis, such as the formation of a tumor-permissive extracellular matrix structure, angiogenesis, or immune and metabolic reprogramming of the tumor microenvironment (TME), with implications for metastasis and resistance to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. The pleiotropic effect of CAFs in TME is likely to reflect the heterogeneity and plasticity of their population, with context-dependent effects on carcinogenesis. The specific properties of CAFs provide many targetable molecules that could play an important role in the future therapy of HNSCC. In this review article, we will focus on the role of CAFs in the TME of HNSCC tumors. We will also discuss clinically relevant agents targeting CAFs, their signals, and signaling pathways, which are activated by CAFs in cancer cells, with the potential for repurposing for HNSCC therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Raudenska
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00 Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Balvan
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Klara Hanelova
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Maria Bugajova
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Masarik
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00 Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University / Kamenice 5, CZ-625 00 Brno, Czech Republic; Institute of Pathophysiology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, / U Nemocnice 5, CZ-128 53 Prague, Czech Republic.
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Muller Bark J, Karpe AV, Doecke JD, Leo P, Jeffree RL, Chua B, Day BW, Beale DJ, Punyadeera C. A pilot study: Metabolic profiling of plasma and saliva samples from newly diagnosed glioblastoma patients. Cancer Med 2023. [PMID: 37031458 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.5857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite aggressive treatment, more than 90% of glioblastoma (GBM) patients experience recurrences. GBM response to therapy is currently assessed by imaging techniques and tissue biopsy. However, difficulties with these methods may cause misinterpretation of treatment outcomes. Currently, no validated therapy response biomarkers are available for monitoring GBM progression. Metabolomics holds potential as a complementary tool to improve the interpretation of therapy responses to help in clinical interventions for GBM patients. METHODS Saliva and blood from GBM patients were collected pre and postoperatively. Patients were stratified conforming their progression-free survival (PFS) into favourable or unfavourable clinical outcomes (>9 months or PFS ≤ 9 months, respectively). Analysis of saliva (whole-mouth and oral rinse) and plasma samples was conducted utilising LC-QqQ-MS and LC-QTOF-MS to determine the metabolomic and lipidomic profiles. The data were investigated using univariate and multivariate statistical analyses and graphical LASSO-based graphic network analyses. RESULTS Altogether, 151 metabolites and 197 lipids were detected within all saliva and plasma samples. Among the patients with unfavourable outcomes, metabolites such as cyclic-AMP, 3-hydroxy-kynurenine, dihydroorotate, UDP and cis-aconitate were elevated, compared to patients with favourable outcomes during pre-and post-surgery. These metabolites showed to impact the pentose phosphate and Warburg effect pathways. The lipid profile of patients who experienced unfavourable outcomes revealed a higher heterogeneity in the abundance of lipids and fewer associations between markers in contrast to the favourable outcome group. CONCLUSION Our findings indicate that changes in salivary and plasma metabolites in GBM patients can potentially be employed as less invasive prognostic biomarkers/biomarker panel but validation with larger cohorts is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Muller Bark
- Faculty of Health, Centre for Biomedical Technologies, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Saliva and Liquid Biopsy Translational Laboratory, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery - Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Gardens Point, Queensland, Australia
| | - Avinash V Karpe
- Environment, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, Queensland, Australia
- Agriculture and Food, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - James D Doecke
- Australian eHealth Research Centre, CSIRO. Level 7, Surgical Treatment and Rehabilitation Service - STARS, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Paul Leo
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Gardens Point, Queensland, Australia
- Faculty of Health, Translational Genomics Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Woolloongabba, Australia
| | - Rosalind L Jeffree
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- Kenneth G. Jamieson Department of Neurosurgery, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Cell and Molecular Biology Department, Sid Faithfull Brain Cancer Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer MRI, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Benjamin Chua
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- Cancer Care Services, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Bryan W Day
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Gardens Point, Queensland, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- Cell and Molecular Biology Department, Sid Faithfull Brain Cancer Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer MRI, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David J Beale
- Environment, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, Queensland, Australia
| | - Chamindie Punyadeera
- Saliva and Liquid Biopsy Translational Laboratory, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery - Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Menzies Health Institute, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia
- Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
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Hu Y, Liu Z, Tang H. Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase may be a potential prognostic biomarker and immunotherapy target in cancer: A meta-analysis and bioinformatics analysis. Front Oncol 2022; 12:977640. [PMID: 36263228 PMCID: PMC9574363 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.977640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO2) is one of the emerging immune checkpoints. Meanwhile, TDO2 is also a key enzyme in the tryptophan (Trp)–kynurenine (Kyn) signaling pathway. Many studies have evaluated that TDO2 is highly expressed in various malignant tumor patients and plays a prognostic role. However, the sample size of a single prognostic study was small, and the results were still controversial. Methods We used Stata software and referenced the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) statement to conduct a meta-analysis on TDO2 and its clinical features and prognosis. We searched the PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases to find publications concerning TDO2 expression in malignant tumor patients up to June 2021. We used the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale (NOS) to evaluate the bias risk of the included literature. Risk ratios (RRs) and hazard ratios (HRs) were used for clinical outcomes, specifically overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS). In addition, we used data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) to verify our conclusions. Results Nine studies including 667 patients with malignant tumors were identified. Our results suggested that overexpression of TDO2 was statistically correlated with poor OS and poor PFS (HR = 2.58, 95% CI = 1.52–4.40, p = 0.0005; HR = 2.38, 95% CI = 0.99–5.73, p = 0.05). In terms of clinicopathological characteristics, the overexpression level of TDO2 was statistically correlated with TNM (tumor–node–metastasis) stage (RR = 0.65, 95% CI = 0.48–0.89, p = 0.002) and regional lymph node metastasis (RR = 0.76, 95% CI = 0.59–0.99, p = 0.04). Subgroup analysis revealed the potential sources of heterogeneity. In addition, bioinformatics studies suggested that the level of TDO2 was high in malignant tumors and higher in cancer tissue than in matched paracarcinoma tissue. Gene enrichment analysis showed that TDO2 was closely related to immune response. Conclusion Overall, TDO2 may be a biomarker for the survival and prognosis of patients with malignant tumors and a potential therapeutic target in the future. Systematic Review Registration https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=260442, identifier (CRD42021260442)
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanyan Hu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First People’s Hospital of Yunnan Province, The Affiliated Hospital of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
- Medical School, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
| | - Zhongjian Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First People’s Hospital of Yunnan Province, The Affiliated Hospital of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
- Medical School, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
| | - Hui Tang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First People’s Hospital of Yunnan Province, The Affiliated Hospital of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
- Medical School, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
- *Correspondence: Hui Tang,
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Qian M, Xia Y, Zhang G, Yu H, Cui Y. Research progress on microRNA-1258 in the development of human cancer. Front Oncol 2022; 12:1024234. [PMID: 36249037 PMCID: PMC9556982 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.1024234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
microRNAs (miRNAs) are small endogenous RNAs composed of 20-22 nucleotides that do not encode proteins, which regulate the expression of downstream genes by targeting the 3' untranslated region of mRNA. Plentiful research has demonstrated that miRNAs participate in the initiation and development of diverse diseases and malignant tumors. miR-1258 exerts great influence on tumors, including tumor growth, distant metastasis, migration, invasion, chemosensitivity, cell glycolysis, apoptosis, and stemness. Interestingly, miR-1258 is a miRNA with explicit functions and has been investigated to act as a tumor suppressor in studies on various types of tumors. With accumulating research on miR-1258, it has been found to be used as a biomarker in the early diagnosis and prognosis prediction of tumor patients. In this review, we outline the development of miR-1258 research, describe its regulatory network, and discuss its roles in cancer. Additionally, we generalize the potential clinical applications of miR-1258. This review offers emerging perspectives and orientations for further comprehending the function of miR-1258 as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker and potent therapeutic target in cancer.
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Rewired Metabolism of Amino Acids and Its Roles in Glioma Pathology. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12100918. [PMID: 36295820 PMCID: PMC9611130 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12100918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 09/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Amino acids (AAs) are indispensable building blocks of diverse bio-macromolecules as well as functional regulators for various metabolic processes. The fact that cancer cells live with a voracious appetite for specific AAs has been widely recognized. Glioma is one of the most lethal malignancies occurring in the central nervous system. The reprogrammed metabolism of AAs benefits glioma proliferation, signal transduction, epigenetic modification, and stress tolerance. Metabolic alteration of specific AAs also contributes to glioma immune escape and chemoresistance. For clinical consideration, fluctuations in the concentrations of AAs observed in specific body fluids provides opportunities to develop new diagnosis and prognosis markers. This review aimed at providing an extra dimension to understanding glioma pathology with respect to the rewired AA metabolism. A deep insight into the relevant fields will help to pave a new way for new therapeutic target identification and valuable biomarker development.
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Pancancer Analysis of Revealed TDO2 as a Biomarker of Prognosis and Immunotherapy. DISEASE MARKERS 2022; 2022:5447017. [PMID: 36118672 PMCID: PMC9481368 DOI: 10.1155/2022/5447017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Background Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) encoded by TDO2, a rate-limiting enzyme in the kynurenine pathway, catabolizes tryptophan to kynurenine, evades immune surveillance, and promotes tumor growth. Although accumulating evidence suggests a crucial role of TDO2 during tumor formation and development, systematic evaluation of TDO2 across human cancers has rarely been reported. Methods To shed more light on the role of TDO2 in human cancer, we explored the expression profiles of TDO2 and identified its prognostic value in pancancer analysis through TCGA, CCLE, and GTEx databases. We further utilized TCGA data to evaluate the association between TDO2 and tumor immunological features, such as mismatch repair (MMR), tumor immune infiltration, immune checkpoint-related genes, tumor mutational burden (TMB), microsatellite instability (MSI), and DNA methyltransferase (DNMT). Results TDO2 exhibited different expression levels in various cancer cell lines. Frequently, TDO2 was detected to be highly expressed in the majority of cancers. In addition, high TDO2 expression was correlated with an unfavorable prognosis for patients in KIRP, LGG, TGCT, and UVM. Moreover, high TDO2 expression level positively correlated with higher immune infiltration, especially dendritic cells. Additionally, there is a close relationship between TDO2 and immune checkpoint-related gene markers, such as LAIR1, CD276, NRP1, CD80, and CD86. Finally, correlation analysis has demonstrated a high-correlation between TDO2 and TMB, MSI, MMR, and DNMT of multiple cancer types. Conclusion Therefore, our results suggest that TDO2 can function as a potential prognostic biomarker due to its role in tumor immunity regulation.
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Abd El-Fattah EE. IDO/kynurenine pathway in cancer: possible therapeutic approaches. Lab Invest 2022; 20:347. [PMID: 35918736 PMCID: PMC9344609 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-022-03554-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in both men and women worldwide. One of the main changes associated with cancer progression, metastasis, recurrence, and chemoresistance is the change in the tumor immune microenvironment, especially immunosuppression. Cancer immunosuppression appears in multiple forms, such as inhibition of immuno-stimulant cells with downregulation of immuno-stimulant mediators or through stimulation of immuno-suppressive cells with upregulation of immunosuppressive mediators. One of the most immunosuppressive mediators that approved potency in lung cancer progression is indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) and its metabolite kynurenine (Kyn). The current review tries to elucidate the role of IDO/Kyn on cancer proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, oxidative stress, and cancer stemness. Besides, our review investigates the new therapeutic modalities that target IDO/Kyn pathway and thus as drug candidates for targeting lung cancer and drugs that potentiate IDO/Kyn pathway and thus can be cancer-promoting agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eslam E Abd El-Fattah
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Delta University for Science and Technology, Gamasa, Egypt.
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Riess C, del Moral K, Fiebig A, Kaps P, Linke C, Hinz B, Rupprecht A, Frank M, Fiedler T, Koczan D, Troschke-Meurer S, Lode HN, Engel N, Freitag T, Classen CF, Maletzki C. Implementation of a combined CDK inhibition and arginine-deprivation approach to target arginine-auxotrophic glioblastoma multiforme cells. Cell Death Dis 2022; 13:555. [PMID: 35717443 PMCID: PMC9206658 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-022-05006-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Constitutive activation of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) or arginine auxotrophy are hallmarks of Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). The latter metabolic defect renders tumor cells vulnerable to arginine-depleting substances, such as arginine deiminase from Streptococcus pyogenes (SpyADI). Previously, we confirmed the susceptibility of patient-derived GBM cells towards SpyADI as well as CDK inhibitors (CDKis). To improve therapeutic effects, we here applied a combined approach based on SpyADI and CDKis (dinaciclib, abemaciclib). Three arginine-auxotrophic patient-derived GBM lines with different molecular characteristics were cultured in 2D and 3D and effects of this combined SpyADI/CDKi approach were analyzed in-depth. All CDKi/SpyADI combinations yielded synergistic antitumoral effects, especially when given sequentially (SEQ), i.e., CDKi in first-line and most pronounced in the 3D models. SEQ application demonstrated impaired cell proliferation, invasiveness, and viability. Mitochondrial impairment was demonstrated by increasing mitochondrial membrane potential and decreasing oxygen consumption rate and extracellular acidification rate after SpyADI/abemaciclib monotherapy or its combination regimens. The combined treatment even induced autophagy in target cells (abemaciclib/SpyADI > dinaciclib/SpyADI). By contrast, the unfolded protein response and p53/p21 induced senescence played a minor role. Transmission electron microscopy confirmed damaged mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum together with increased vacuolization under CDKi mono- and combination therapy. SEQ-abemaciclib/SpyADI treatment suppressed the DSB repair system via NHEJ and HR, whereas SEQ-dinaciclib/SpyADI treatment increased γ-H2AX accumulation and induced Rad51/Ku80. The latter combination also activated the stress sensor GADD45 and β-catenin antagonist AXIN2 and induced expression changes of genes involved in cellular/cytoskeletal integrity. This study highlights the strong antitumoral potential of a combined arginine deprivation and CDK inhibition approach via complex effects on mitochondrial dysfunction, invasiveness as well as DNA-damage response. This provides a good starting point for further in vitro and in vivo proof-of-concept studies to move forward with this strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christin Riess
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454University Children’s Hospital, Rostock University Medical Center, Ernst-Heydemann-Straße 8, 18057 Rostock, Germany ,grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Department of Medicine, Clinic III - Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Rostock University Medical Center, Ernst-Heydemann-Straße 6, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Katharina del Moral
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454University Children’s Hospital, Rostock University Medical Center, Ernst-Heydemann-Straße 8, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Adina Fiebig
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology, and Hygiene, Rostock University Medical Center, Schillingallee 70, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Philipp Kaps
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454University Children’s Hospital, Rostock University Medical Center, Ernst-Heydemann-Straße 8, 18057 Rostock, Germany ,grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Department of Medicine, Clinic III - Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Rostock University Medical Center, Ernst-Heydemann-Straße 6, 18057 Rostock, Germany ,grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology, and Hygiene, Rostock University Medical Center, Schillingallee 70, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Charlotte Linke
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454University Children’s Hospital, Rostock University Medical Center, Ernst-Heydemann-Straße 8, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Burkhard Hinz
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Rostock University Medical Center, Schillingallee 70, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Anne Rupprecht
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Rostock University Medical Center, Schillingallee 70, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Marcus Frank
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Medical Biology and Electron Microscopy Center, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany ,grid.10493.3f0000000121858338Department of Life, Light & Matter, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Tomas Fiedler
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology, and Hygiene, Rostock University Medical Center, Schillingallee 70, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Dirk Koczan
- grid.10493.3f0000000121858338Institute for Immunology, University of Rostock, 18055 Rostock, Germany
| | - Sascha Troschke-Meurer
- grid.5603.0Department of Pediatric Oncology and Hematology, University Medicine Greifswald, Ferdinand-Sauerbruch-Strasse, 17475 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Holger N. Lode
- grid.5603.0Department of Pediatric Oncology and Hematology, University Medicine Greifswald, Ferdinand-Sauerbruch-Strasse, 17475 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Nadja Engel
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Facial Plastic Surgery, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Thomas Freitag
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Department of Medicine, Clinic III - Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Rostock University Medical Center, Ernst-Heydemann-Straße 6, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Carl Friedrich Classen
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454University Children’s Hospital, Rostock University Medical Center, Ernst-Heydemann-Straße 8, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Claudia Maletzki
- grid.413108.f0000 0000 9737 0454Department of Medicine, Clinic III - Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Rostock University Medical Center, Ernst-Heydemann-Straße 6, 18057 Rostock, Germany
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Obara-Michlewska M. The tryptophan metabolism, kynurenine pathway and oxidative stress - Implications for glioma pathobiology. Neurochem Int 2022; 158:105363. [PMID: 35667490 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2022.105363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The kynurenine pathway receives increasing attention due to its involvement in central nervous system pathologies, i.a. neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders, but also due to the contribution to the pathomechanism of neoplasms, including brain tumors.The present review focuses on kynurenine pathway activity in gliomas, brain tumors of glial origin. The upregulation of kynurenine pathway enzyme, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), resulting in a decreased level of tryptophan and augmented kynurenine synthesis (increased (KYN/Trp ratio) are the most recognised hallmark of malignant transformation, characterised with immunomodulatory adaptations, providing an escape from defence mechanisms of the host, growth-beneficial milieu and resistance to some therapeutics. The review addresses, however, the oxidative/nitrosative stress-associated mechanisms of tryptophan catabolism, mainly the kynurenine pathway activity, linking them with glioma pathobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Obara-Michlewska
- Department of Neurotoxicology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
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12
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Schoenwaelder N, Krause M, Freitag T, Schneider B, Zonnur S, Zimpfer A, Becker AS, Salewski I, Strüder DF, Lemcke H, Grosse-Thie C, Junghanss C, Maletzki C. Preclinical Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Models for Combined Targeted Therapy Approaches. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14102484. [PMID: 35626088 PMCID: PMC9139292 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14102484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to refine combined targeted approaches on well-characterized, low-passage tumor models. Upon in vivo xenografting in immunodeficient mice, three cell lines from locally advanced or metastatic HNSCC were established. Following quality control and basic characterization, drug response was examined after therapy with 5-FU, Cisplatin, and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (abemaciclib, THZ1). Our cell lines showed different in vitro growth kinetics, morphology, invasive potential, and radiosensitivity. All cell lines were sensitive to 5-FU, Cisplatin, and THZ1. One cell line (HNSCC48 P0 M1) was sensitive to abemaciclib. Here, Cyto-FISH revealed a partial CDKN2a deletion, which resulted from a R58* mutation. Moreover, this cell line demonstrated chromosome 12 polysomy, accompanied by an increase in CDK4-specific copy numbers. In HNSCC16 P1 M1, we likewise identified polysomy-associated CDK4-gains. Although not sensitive to abemaciclib per se, the cell line showed a G1-arrest, an increased number of acidic organelles, and a swollen structure. Notably, intrinsic resistance was conquered by Cisplatin because of cMYC and IDO-1 downregulation. Additionally, this Cisplatin-CDKI combination induced HLA-ABC and PD-L1 upregulation, which may enhance immunogenicity. Performing functional and molecular analysis on patient-individual HNSCC-models, we identified CDK4-gains as a biomarker for abemaciclib response prediction and describe an approach to conquer intrinsic CDKI resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Schoenwaelder
- Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Clinic III, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (N.S.); (M.K.); (T.F.); (I.S.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.)
| | - Mareike Krause
- Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Clinic III, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (N.S.); (M.K.); (T.F.); (I.S.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.)
| | - Thomas Freitag
- Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Clinic III, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (N.S.); (M.K.); (T.F.); (I.S.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.)
| | - Björn Schneider
- Institute of Pathology, Rostock University Medical Centre, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (B.S.); (S.Z.); (A.Z.); (A.S.B.)
| | - Sarah Zonnur
- Institute of Pathology, Rostock University Medical Centre, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (B.S.); (S.Z.); (A.Z.); (A.S.B.)
| | - Annette Zimpfer
- Institute of Pathology, Rostock University Medical Centre, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (B.S.); (S.Z.); (A.Z.); (A.S.B.)
| | - Anne Sophie Becker
- Institute of Pathology, Rostock University Medical Centre, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (B.S.); (S.Z.); (A.Z.); (A.S.B.)
| | - Inken Salewski
- Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Clinic III, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (N.S.); (M.K.); (T.F.); (I.S.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.)
| | - Daniel Fabian Strüder
- Head and Neck Surgery “Otto Koerner”, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Rostock University Medical Centre, 18057 Rostock, Germany;
| | - Heiko Lemcke
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Reference and Translation Center for Cardiac Stem Cell Therapy (RTC), Rostock University Medical Center, University of Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany;
- Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, Department Life, Light & Matter, University Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Christina Grosse-Thie
- Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Clinic III, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (N.S.); (M.K.); (T.F.); (I.S.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.)
| | - Christian Junghanss
- Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Clinic III, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (N.S.); (M.K.); (T.F.); (I.S.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.)
| | - Claudia Maletzki
- Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Clinic III, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (N.S.); (M.K.); (T.F.); (I.S.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.)
- Correspondence:
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13
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Shandell MA, Capatina AL, Lawrence SM, Brackenbury WJ, Lagos D. Inhibition of the Na +/K +-ATPase by cardiac glycosides suppresses expression of the IDO1 immune checkpoint in cancer cells by reducing STAT1 activation. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:101707. [PMID: 35150740 PMCID: PMC8902613 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.101707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite extensive basic and clinical research on immune checkpoint regulatory pathways, little is known about the effects of the ionic tumor microenvironment on immune checkpoint expression and function. Here we describe a mechanistic link between Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) inhibition and activity of the immune checkpoint protein indoleamine-pyrrole 2',3'-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1). We found that IDO1 was necessary and sufficient for production of kynurenine, a downstream tryptophan metabolite, in cancer cells. We developed a spectrophotometric assay to screen a library of 31 model ion transport-targeting compounds for potential effects on IDO1 function in A549 lung and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. This revealed that the cardiac glycosides ouabain and digoxin inhibited kynurenine production at concentrations that did not affect cell survival. NKA inhibition by ouabain and digoxin resulted in increased intracellular Na+ levels and downregulation of IDO1 mRNA and protein levels, which was consistent with the reduction in kynurenine levels. Knockdown of ATP1A1, the ɑ1 subunit of the NKA and target of cardiac glycosides, increased Na+ levels to a lesser extent than cardiac glycoside treatment and did not affect IDO1 expression. However, ATP1A1 knockdown significantly enhanced the effect of cardiac glycosides on IDO1 expression and kynurenine production. Mechanistically, we show that cardiac glycoside treatment resulted in curtailing the length of phosphorylation-mediated stabilization of STAT1, a transcriptional regulator of IDO1 expression, an effect enhanced by ATP1A1 knockdown. Our findings reveal cross talk between ionic modulation via cardiac glycosides and immune checkpoint protein expression in cancer cells with broad mechanistic and clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia A Shandell
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom; Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, United Kingdom; York Biomedical Research Institute, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Alina L Capatina
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom; York Biomedical Research Institute, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | | | - William J Brackenbury
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom; York Biomedical Research Institute, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Dimitris Lagos
- Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, United Kingdom; York Biomedical Research Institute, University of York, York, United Kingdom.
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14
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Kim JH, Lee WS, Lee HJ, Yang H, Lee SJ, Kong SJ, Je S, Yang HJ, Jung J, Cheon J, Kang B, Chon HJ, Kim C. Deep learning model enables the discovery of a novel immunotherapeutic agent regulating the kynurenine pathway. Oncoimmunology 2021; 10:2005280. [PMID: 34858729 PMCID: PMC8632076 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2021.2005280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Kynurenine (Kyn) is a key inducer of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Although indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)-selective inhibitors have been developed to suppress the Kyn pathway, the results were not satisfactory due to the presence of various opposing mechanisms. Here, we employed an orally administered novel Kyn pathway regulator to overcome the limitation of anti-tumor immune response. We identified a novel core structure that inhibited both IDO and TDO. An orally available lead compound, STB-C017 (designated hereafter as STB), effectively inhibited the enzymatic and cellular activity of IDO and TDO in vitro. Moreover, it potently suppressed Kyn levels in both the plasma and tumor in vivo. STB monotherapy increased the infiltration of CD8+ T cells into TME. In addition, STB reprogrammed the TME with widespread changes in immune-mediated gene signatures. Notably, STB-based combination immunotherapy elicited the most potent anti-tumor efficacy through concurrent treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors, leading to complete tumor regression and long-term overall survival. Our study demonstrated that a novel Kyn pathway regulator derived using deep learning technology can activate T cell immunity and potentiate immune checkpoint blockade by overcoming an immunosuppressive TME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Hun Kim
- Laboratory of Translational Immuno-Oncology, Seongnam, Korea.,Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine,CHA Bundang Medical Center, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea.,Graduate School of Department of Biomedical Science, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Won Suk Lee
- Laboratory of Translational Immuno-Oncology, Seongnam, Korea.,Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine,CHA Bundang Medical Center, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Hye Jin Lee
- Laboratory of Translational Immuno-Oncology, Seongnam, Korea.,Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine,CHA Bundang Medical Center, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea.,Graduate School of Department of Biomedical Science, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Hannah Yang
- Laboratory of Translational Immuno-Oncology, Seongnam, Korea.,Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine,CHA Bundang Medical Center, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Seung Joon Lee
- Laboratory of Translational Immuno-Oncology, Seongnam, Korea.,Graduate School of Department of Biomedical Science, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea
| | - So Jung Kong
- Laboratory of Translational Immuno-Oncology, Seongnam, Korea.,Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine,CHA Bundang Medical Center, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Soyeon Je
- Medical Science Study Centre, Syntekabio Inc, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyun-Jin Yang
- Medical Science Study Centre, Syntekabio Inc, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jongsun Jung
- Insilico Clinical Trial Research Center, Syntekabio Inc, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Jaekyung Cheon
- Laboratory of Translational Immuno-Oncology, Seongnam, Korea.,Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine,CHA Bundang Medical Center, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea.,Graduate School of Department of Biomedical Science, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Beodeul Kang
- Laboratory of Translational Immuno-Oncology, Seongnam, Korea.,Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine,CHA Bundang Medical Center, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea.,Graduate School of Department of Biomedical Science, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Hong Jae Chon
- Laboratory of Translational Immuno-Oncology, Seongnam, Korea.,Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine,CHA Bundang Medical Center, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea.,Graduate School of Department of Biomedical Science, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Chan Kim
- Laboratory of Translational Immuno-Oncology, Seongnam, Korea.,Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine,CHA Bundang Medical Center, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea.,Graduate School of Department of Biomedical Science, Cha University, Seongnam, Korea
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15
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New Immunotherapeutic Approaches for Glioblastoma. J Immunol Res 2021; 2021:3412906. [PMID: 34557553 PMCID: PMC8455182 DOI: 10.1155/2021/3412906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor with a high mortality rate. The current treatment consists of surgical resection, radiation, and chemotherapy; however, the median survival rate is only 12–18 months despite these alternatives, highlighting the urgent need to find new strategies. The heterogeneity of GBM makes this tumor difficult to treat, and the immunotherapies result in an attractive approach to modulate the antitumoral immune responses favoring the tumor eradication. The immunotherapies for GMB including monoclonal antibodies, checkpoint inhibitors, vaccines, and oncolytic viruses, among others, have shown favorable results alone or as a multimodal treatment. In this review, we summarize and discuss promising immunotherapies for GBM currently under preclinical investigation as well as in clinical trials.
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16
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Kynurenine Monooxygenase Expression and Activity in Human Astrocytomas. Cells 2021; 10:cells10082028. [PMID: 34440798 PMCID: PMC8393384 DOI: 10.3390/cells10082028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and aggressive primary brain tumor. The enzyme indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), which participates in the rate-limiting step of tryptophan catabolism through the kynurenine pathway (KP), is associated with poor prognosis in patients with GBM. The metabolites produced after tryptophan oxidation have immunomodulatory properties that can support the immunosuppressor environment. In this study, mRNA expression, protein expression, and activity of the enzyme kynurenine monooxygenase (KMO) were analyzed in GBM cell lines (A172, LN-18, U87, U373) and patient-derived astrocytoma samples. KMO mRNA expression was assessed by real-time RT-qPCR, KMO protein expression was evaluated by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence, and KMO activity was determined by quantifying 3-hydroxykynurenine by HPLC. Heterogenous patterns of both KMO expression and activity were observed among the GBM cell lines, with the A172 cell line showing the highest KMO expression and activity. Higher KMO mRNA expression was observed in glioma samples than in patients diagnosed with only a neurological disease; high KMO mRNA expression was also observed when using samples from patients with GBM in the TCGA program. The KMO protein expression was localized in GFAP+ cells in tumor tissue. These results suggest that KMO is a relevant target to be explored in glioma since it might play a role in supporting tumor metabolism and immune suppression.
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17
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Kynurenines as a Novel Target for the Treatment of Malignancies. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14070606. [PMID: 34201791 PMCID: PMC8308824 DOI: 10.3390/ph14070606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignancies are unquestionably a significant public health problem. Their effective treatment is still a big challenge for modern medicine. Tumors have developed a wide range of mechanisms to evade an immune and therapeutic response. As a result, there is an unmet clinical need for research on solutions aimed at overcoming this problem. An accumulation of tryptophan metabolites belonging to the kynurenine pathway can enhance neoplastic progression because it causes the suppression of immune system response against cancer cells. They are also involved in the development of the mechanisms responsible for the resistance to antitumor therapy. Kynurenine belongs to the most potent immunosuppressive metabolites of this pathway and has a significant impact on the development of malignancies. This fact prompted researchers to assess whether targeting the enzymes responsible for its synthesis could be an effective therapeutic strategy for various cancers. To date, numerous studies, both preclinical and clinical, have been conducted on this topic, especially regarding the inhibition of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity and their results can be considered noteworthy. This review gathers and systematizes the knowledge about the role of the kynurenine pathway in neoplastic progression and the findings regarding the usefulness of modulating its activity in anticancer therapy.
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18
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Ranjan A, Pang Y, Butler M, Merchant M, Kim O, Yu G, Su YT, Gilbert MR, Levens D, Wu J. Targeting CDK9 for the Treatment of Glioblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3039. [PMID: 34207158 PMCID: PMC8234280 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13123039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma is the most common and aggressive primary malignant brain tumor, and more than two-thirds of patients with glioblastoma die within two years of diagnosis. The challenges of treating this disease mainly include genetic and microenvironmental features that often render the tumor resistant to treatments. Despite extensive research efforts, only a small number of drugs tested in clinical trials have become therapies for patients. Targeting cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) is an emerging therapeutic approach that has the potential to overcome the challenges in glioblastoma management. Here, we discuss how CDK9 inhibition can impact transcription, metabolism, DNA damage repair, epigenetics, and the immune response to facilitate an anti-tumor response. Moreover, we discuss small-molecule inhibitors of CDK9 in clinical trials and future perspectives on the use of CDK9 inhibitors in treating patients with glioblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Ranjan
- Neuro-Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (A.R.); (Y.P.); (M.B.); (M.M.); (O.K.); (G.Y.); (Y.-T.S.); (M.R.G.)
| | - Ying Pang
- Neuro-Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (A.R.); (Y.P.); (M.B.); (M.M.); (O.K.); (G.Y.); (Y.-T.S.); (M.R.G.)
| | - Madison Butler
- Neuro-Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (A.R.); (Y.P.); (M.B.); (M.M.); (O.K.); (G.Y.); (Y.-T.S.); (M.R.G.)
| | - Mythili Merchant
- Neuro-Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (A.R.); (Y.P.); (M.B.); (M.M.); (O.K.); (G.Y.); (Y.-T.S.); (M.R.G.)
| | - Olga Kim
- Neuro-Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (A.R.); (Y.P.); (M.B.); (M.M.); (O.K.); (G.Y.); (Y.-T.S.); (M.R.G.)
| | - Guangyang Yu
- Neuro-Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (A.R.); (Y.P.); (M.B.); (M.M.); (O.K.); (G.Y.); (Y.-T.S.); (M.R.G.)
| | - Yu-Ting Su
- Neuro-Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (A.R.); (Y.P.); (M.B.); (M.M.); (O.K.); (G.Y.); (Y.-T.S.); (M.R.G.)
| | - Mark R. Gilbert
- Neuro-Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (A.R.); (Y.P.); (M.B.); (M.M.); (O.K.); (G.Y.); (Y.-T.S.); (M.R.G.)
| | - David Levens
- Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA;
| | - Jing Wu
- Neuro-Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (A.R.); (Y.P.); (M.B.); (M.M.); (O.K.); (G.Y.); (Y.-T.S.); (M.R.G.)
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19
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Lin DJ, Ng JCK, Huang L, Robinson M, O'Hara J, Wilson JA, Mellor AL. The immunotherapeutic role of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: A systematic review. Clin Otolaryngol 2021; 46:919-934. [PMID: 34053179 PMCID: PMC8600953 DOI: 10.1111/coa.13794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Novel cancer immunotherapy seeks to harness the body's own immune system and tip the balance in favour of antitumour activity. The intracellular enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is a critical regulator of the tumour microenvironment (TME) via tryptophan metabolism. The potential immunotherapeutic role of IDO in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) requires further exploration. We aim to assess the evidence on IDO in HNSCC. METHODS A systematic review of literature and clinical trials databases. RESULTS We included 40 studies: seven involved cell lines: eight assessed tumour immunohistochemistry: ten measured IDO gene transcription: 15 reported on clinical trials. Increased cell line IDO expression was postulated to adversely affect tumour metabolism and apoptosis. Immunohistochemical IDO expression correlated with worse survival. Gene transcription studies associated IDO with positive PD-L1 and human papillomavirus (HPV) status. Phase I/II clinical trials showed (a) overall response (34%-55%) and disease control rates (62%-70%) for IDO1 inhibitor in combination with a PD-1 inhibitor, (b) similar safety profiles when both are used in combination therapy compared to each as monotherapies and (c) IDO gene expression as a predictive biomarker for response to PD-L1 therapy. CONCLUSIONS IDO expression is increased in the TME of HNSCC, which correlates with poor prognosis. However, the exact mechanism of IDO-driven immune modulation in the TME is an enigma. Future translational studies should map IDO activity during HNSCC treatment and elucidate its precise role in the TME, such research will underpin the development of clinical trials establishing the efficacy of IDO inhibitors in HNSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Lin
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,ENT Department, Freeman Hospital, High Heaton, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - James C K Ng
- ENT Department, Freeman Hospital, High Heaton, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Lei Huang
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Max Robinson
- Centre for Oral Health Research, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - James O'Hara
- ENT Department, Freeman Hospital, High Heaton, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,Institute of Health & Society, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Janet A Wilson
- ENT Department, Freeman Hospital, High Heaton, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,Institute of Health & Society, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Andrew L Mellor
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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20
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Schoenwaelder N, Salewski I, Engel N, Krause M, Schneider B, Müller M, Riess C, Lemcke H, Skorska A, Grosse-Thie C, Junghanss C, Maletzki C. The Individual Effects of Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitors on Head and Neck Cancer Cells-A Systematic Analysis. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13102396. [PMID: 34063457 PMCID: PMC8157193 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13102396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKi´s) display cytotoxic activity against different malignancies, including head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC). By coordinating the DNA damage response, these substances may be combined with cytostatics to enhance cytotoxicity. Here, we investigated the influence of different CDKi´s (palbociclib, dinaciclib, THZ1) on two HNSCC cell lines in monotherapy and combination therapy with clinically-approved drugs (5-FU, Cisplatin, cetuximab). Apoptosis/necrosis, cell cycle, invasiveness, senescence, radiation-induced γ-H2AX DNA double-strand breaks, and effects on the actin filament were studied. Furthermore, the potential to increase tumor immunogenicity was assessed by analyzing Calreticulin translocation and immune relevant surface markers. Finally, an in vivo mouse model was used to analyze the effect of dinaciclib and Cisplatin combination therapy. Dinaciclib, palbociclib, and THZ1 displayed anti-neoplastic activity after low-dose treatment, while the two latter substances slightly enhanced radiosensitivity. Dinaciclib decelerated wound healing, decreased invasiveness, and induced MHC-I, accompanied by high amounts of surface-bound Calreticulin. Numbers of early and late apoptotic cells increased initially (24 h), while necrosis dominated afterward. Antitumoral effects of the selective CDKi palbociclib were weaker, but combinations with 5-FU potentiated effects of the monotherapy. Additionally, CDKi and CDKi/chemotherapy combinations induced MHC I, indicative of enhanced immunogenicity. The in vivo studies revealed a cell line-specific response with best tumor growth control in the combination approach. Global acting CDKi's should be further investigated as targeting agents for HNSCC, either individually or in combination with selected drugs. The ability of dinaciclib to increase the immunogenicity of tumor cells renders this substance a particularly interesting candidate for immune-based oncological treatment regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Schoenwaelder
- Department of Internal Medicine, Medical Clinic III—Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (I.S.); (M.K.); (C.R.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.); (C.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-381-494-5764
| | - Inken Salewski
- Department of Internal Medicine, Medical Clinic III—Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (I.S.); (M.K.); (C.R.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.); (C.M.)
| | - Nadja Engel
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Facial Plastic Surgery, University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany;
| | - Mareike Krause
- Department of Internal Medicine, Medical Clinic III—Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (I.S.); (M.K.); (C.R.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.); (C.M.)
| | - Björn Schneider
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Rostock, Strempelstr.14, 18057 Rostock, Germany;
| | - Michael Müller
- Core Facility for Cell Sorting & Cell Analysis, Laboratory for Clinical Immunology, University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany;
| | - Christin Riess
- Department of Internal Medicine, Medical Clinic III—Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (I.S.); (M.K.); (C.R.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.); (C.M.)
- University Children’s Hospital, Rostock University Medical Centre, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Heiko Lemcke
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Reference and Translation Center for Cardiac Stem Cell Therapy (RTC), University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (H.L.); (A.S.)
- Department of Cardiology, University Medical Center Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany
- Department Life, Light & Matter, Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, University Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Anna Skorska
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Reference and Translation Center for Cardiac Stem Cell Therapy (RTC), University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (H.L.); (A.S.)
- Department of Cardiology, University Medical Center Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany
- Department Life, Light & Matter, Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, University Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Christina Grosse-Thie
- Department of Internal Medicine, Medical Clinic III—Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (I.S.); (M.K.); (C.R.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.); (C.M.)
| | - Christian Junghanss
- Department of Internal Medicine, Medical Clinic III—Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (I.S.); (M.K.); (C.R.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.); (C.M.)
| | - Claudia Maletzki
- Department of Internal Medicine, Medical Clinic III—Hematology, Oncology, Palliative Medicine, University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany; (I.S.); (M.K.); (C.R.); (C.G.-T.); (C.J.); (C.M.)
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21
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Riess C, Irmscher N, Salewski I, Strüder D, Classen CF, Große-Thie C, Junghanss C, Maletzki C. Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors in head and neck cancer and glioblastoma-backbone or add-on in immune-oncology? Cancer Metastasis Rev 2021; 40:153-171. [PMID: 33161487 PMCID: PMC7897202 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-020-09940-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) control the cell cycle and play a crucial role in oncogenesis. Pharmacologic inhibition of CDK has contributed to the recent clinical approval of dual CDK4/6 inhibitors for the treatment of breast and small cell lung cancer. While the anticancer cell effects of CDK inhibitors are well-established, preclinical and early clinical studies describe additional mechanisms of action such as chemo- and radiosensitization or immune stimulation. The latter offers great potential to incorporate CDK inhibitors in immune-based treatments. However, dosing schedules and accurate timing of each combination partner need to be respected to prevent immune escape and resistance. In this review, we provide a detailed summary of CDK inhibitors in the two solid cancer types head and neck cancer and glioblastoma multiforme; it describes the molecular mechanisms of response vs. resistance and covers strategies to avoid resistance by the combination of immunotherapy or targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christin Riess
- Department of Medicine, Clinic III - Hematology, Oncology and Palliative Care, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
- University Children's and Adolescents' Hospital, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Nina Irmscher
- Department of Medicine, Clinic III - Hematology, Oncology and Palliative Care, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Inken Salewski
- Department of Medicine, Clinic III - Hematology, Oncology and Palliative Care, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Daniel Strüder
- Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Head and Neck Surgery "Otto Körner", Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Carl-Friedrich Classen
- University Children's and Adolescents' Hospital, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Christina Große-Thie
- Department of Medicine, Clinic III - Hematology, Oncology and Palliative Care, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Christian Junghanss
- Department of Medicine, Clinic III - Hematology, Oncology and Palliative Care, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Claudia Maletzki
- Department of Medicine, Clinic III - Hematology, Oncology and Palliative Care, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany.
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22
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Ala M. The footprint of kynurenine pathway in every cancer: a new target for chemotherapy. Eur J Pharmacol 2021; 896:173921. [PMID: 33529725 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.173921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Treatment of cancers has always been a challenge for physicians. Typically, several groups of anti-cancer medications are needed for effective management of an invasive and metastatic cancer. Recently, therapeutic potentiation of immune system markedly improved treatment of cancers. Kynurenine pathway has an interwoven correlation with immune system. Kynurenine promotes T Reg (regulatory) differentiation, which leads to increased production of anti-inflammatory cytokines and suppression of cytotoxic activity of T cells. Overactivation of kynurenine pathway in cancers provides an immunologically susceptible microenvironment for mutant cells to survive and invade surrounding tissues. Interestingly, kynurenine pathway vigorously interacts with other molecular pathways involved in tumorigenesis. For instance, kynurenine pathway interacts with phospoinosisitide-3 kinase (PI3K), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), Wnt/β-catenin, P53, bridging integrator 1 (BIN-1), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) and collagen type XII α1 chain (COL12A1). Overactivation of kynurenine pathway, particularly overactivation of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) predicts poor prognosis of several cancers such as gastrointestinal cancers, gynecological cancers, hematologic malignancies, breast cancer, lung cancer, glioma, melanoma, prostate cancer and pancreatic cancer. Furthermore, kynurenine increases the invasion, metastasis and chemoresistance of cancer cells. Recently, IDO inhibitors entered clinical trials and successfully passed their safety tests and showed promising therapeutic efficacy for cancers such as melanoma, brain cancer, renal cell carcinoma, prostate cancer and pancreatic cancer. However, a phase III trial of epacadostat, an IDO inhibitor, could not increase the efficacy of treatment with pembrolizumab for melanoma. In this review the expanding knowledge towards kynurenine pathway and its application in each cancer is discussed separately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moein Ala
- School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), Tehran, Iran.
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Association of PD-L1 and IDO1 expression with JAK-STAT pathway activation in soft-tissue leiomyosarcoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2020; 147:1451-1463. [PMID: 32951108 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-020-03390-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Therapies targeting the immune checkpoint molecules programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) have been explored in various malignant tumours. In this study, we examined the relationship between PDL-1, IDO1 and JAK2 expression and the roles of these signal pathways in soft tissue leiomyosarcoma (LMS). METHODS The next-generation sequencing data of 53 patients with LMS were obtained from an online public database and were used to assess PD-L1, IDO1 and JAK2 gene amplification and mRNA expression. Then, we determined the relationship between JAK-STAT pathway activation and PD-L1 and IDO1 expression in a LMS cell line. In addition, immunohistochemical staining of 69 cases of LMS was performed for PD-L1, IDO1, TDO2 and phosphorylated JAK2 (pJAK2). RESULTS Comprehensive gene expression analysis using microarray and RNA-Seq data revealed that PD-L1 and IDO1 mRNA expression positively correlated with JAK2 and STAT1 mRNA expression. Two of the 53 cases exhibited PD-L1 and JAK2 gene amplification; however, they were not related to their gene expression. LMS cell line analysis revealed that IFN-γ supplementation induced IDO1 and PD-L1 expression; these effects were suppressed by JAK inhibition. Immunohistochemical analysis of the resected specimens revealed that TDO2 expression positively correlated with pJAK2 (P = 0.0490) and IDO1 expression (P < 0.0001). PD-L1-positive specimens tended to express pJAK2; however, the relationship did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.1477). CONCLUSION The results suggest the possible feasibility of the combined inhibition of PD-1/PD-L1 or IDO1 with IFN-γ-JAK-STAT pathway inhibition to treat soft tissue LMS.
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Anderson G. Glioblastoma chemoresistance: roles of the mitochondrial melatonergic pathway. CANCER DRUG RESISTANCE (ALHAMBRA, CALIF.) 2020; 3:334-355. [PMID: 35582450 PMCID: PMC8992488 DOI: 10.20517/cdr.2020.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Treatment-resistance is common in glioblastoma (GBM) and the glioblastoma stem-like cells (GSC) from which they arise. Current treatment options are generally regarded as very poor and this arises from a poor conceptualization of the biological underpinnings of GBM/GSC and of the plasticity that these cells are capable of utilizing in response to different treatments. A number of studies indicate melatonin to have utility in the management of GBM/GSC, both per se and when adjunctive to chemotherapy. Recent work shows melatonin to be produced in mitochondria, with the mitochondrial melatonergic pathway proposed to be a crucial factor in driving the wide array of changes in intra- and inter-cellular processes, as well as receptors that can be evident in the cells of the GBM/GSC microenvironment. Variations in the enzymatic conversion of N-acetylserotonin (NAS) to melatonin may be especially important in GSC, as NAS can activate the tyrosine receptor kinase B to increase GSC survival and proliferation. Consequently, variations in the NAS/melatonin ratio may have contrasting effects on GBM/GSC survival. It is proposed that mitochondrial communication across cell types in the tumour microenvironment is strongly driven by the need to carefully control the mitochondrial melatonergic pathways across cell types, with a number of intra- and inter-cellular processes occurring as a consequence of the need to carefully regulate the NAS/melatonin ratio. This better integrates previously disparate data on GBM/GSC as well as providing clear future research and treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Anderson
- CRC Scotland & London, Eccleston Square, London SW1V 1PG, UK
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