Engineering cytokines for cancer immunotherapy: a systematic review

Targeting cytokine and chemokine signaling pathways for cancer therapy

Cytokines are critical in regulating immune responses and cellular behavior, playing dual roles in both normal physiology and the pathology of diseases such as cancer. These molecules, including interleukins, interferons, tumor necrosis factors, chemokines, and growth factors like TGF-β, VEGF, and EGF, can promote or inhibit tumor growth, influence the tumor microenvironment, and impact the efficacy of cancer treatments. Recent advances in targeting these pathways have shown promising therapeutic potential, offering new strategies to modulate the immune system, inhibit tumor progression, and overcome resistance to conventional therapies. In this review, we summarized the current understanding and therapeutic implications of targeting cytokine and chemokine signaling pathways in cancer. By exploring the roles of these molecules in tumor biology and the immune response, we highlighted the development of novel therapeutic agents aimed at modulating these pathways to combat cancer. The review elaborated on the dual nature of cytokines as both promoters and suppressors of tumorigenesis, depending on the context, and discussed the challenges and opportunities this presents for therapeutic intervention. We also examined the latest advancements in targeted therapies, including monoclonal antibodies, bispecific antibodies, receptor inhibitors, fusion proteins, engineered cytokine variants, and their impact on tumor growth, metastasis, and the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, we evaluated the potential of combining these targeted therapies with other treatment modalities to overcome resistance and improve patient outcomes. Besides, we also focused on the ongoing research and clinical trials that are pivotal in advancing our understanding and application of cytokine- and chemokine-targeted therapies for cancer patients.

Synergistic Effects of Metal-Organic Nanoplatform and Guanine Quadruplex-Based CpG Oligodeoxynucleotides in Therapeutic Cancer Vaccines with Different Tumor Antigens

Oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) containing unmethylated cytosine-phosphate-guanosine (CpG) motifs are readily recognized by Toll-like receptor 9 on immune cells, trigger an immunomodulatory cascade, induce a Th1 -biased immune milieu, and have great potential as an adjuvant in cancer vaccines. In this study, a green one-step synthesis process was adopted to prepare an amino-rich metal-organic nanoplatform (FN). The synthesized FN nanoplatform can simultaneously and effectively load model tumor antigens (OVA)/autologous tumor antigens (dLLC) and immunostimulatory CpG ODNs with an unmodified PD backbone and a guanine quadruplex structure to obtain various cancer vaccines. The FN nanoplatform and immunostimulatory CpG ODNs generate synergistic effects to enhance the immunogenicity of different antigens and inhibit the growth of established and distant tumors in both the murine E.G7-OVA lymphoma model and the murine Lewis lung carcinoma model. In the E.G7-OVA lymphoma model, vaccination efficiently increases the CD4+, CD8+, and tetramer+CD8+ T cell populations in the spleens. In the Lewis lung carcinoma model, vaccination efficiently increases the CD3+CD4+ and CD3+CD8+ T cell populations in the spleens and CD3+CD8+, CD3-CD8+, and CD11b+CD80+ cell populations in the tumors, suggesting the alteration of tumor microenvironments from cold to hot tumors.

High efficacy of huCD20-targeted AcTaferon in humanized patient derived xenograft models of aggressive B cell lymphoma

Type I interferon (IFN) is a potent antitumoral drug, with an important history in the treatment of hematologic malignancies. However, its pleiotropic nature leads to severe dose-limiting toxicities that blunt its therapeutic potential. To achieve selective targeting of specific immune or tumor cells, AcTakines (Activity-on-Target Cytokines), i.e., immunocytokines utilizing attenuated cytokines, and clinically optimized A-Kines™ were developed. In syngeneic murine models, the CD20-targeted murine IFNα2-based AcTaferons (AFNs) have demonstrated clear antitumoral effects, with excellent tolerability. The current study explores the antitumoral potential of the humanized huCD20-Fc-AFN in 5 different humanized patient derived xenograft (PDX) models of huCD20+ aggressive B non-Hodgkin lymphomas (B-NHLs). The huCD20-Fc-AFN consists of a huCD20-specific single-domain antibody (VHH) linked through a heterodimeric 'knob-in-hole' human IgG1 Fc molecule to an attenuated huIFNα2 sequence. An in vitro targeting efficacy of up to 1.000-fold could be obtained, without detectable in vivo toxicities, except for selective (on-target) and reversible B cell depletion. Treatment with huCD20-Fc-AFN significantly increased the median overall survival (mOS) in both non-humanized (mOS 31 to 45 days; HR = 0.26; p = 0.001), and humanized NSG/NOG mice (mOS 34 to 80 days; HR = 0.37; p < 0.0001). In humanized mice, there was a trend for increased survival when compared to equimolar rituximab (mOS 49 to 80 days; HR = 0.73; p = 0.09). The antitumoral effects of huCD20-Fc-AFN were partly due to direct effects of type I IFN on the tumor cells, but additional effects via the human immune system are essential to obtain long-term remissions. To conclude, huCD20-Fc-AFN could provide a novel therapeutic strategy for huCD20-expressing aggressive B-NHLs.

Tumor-activated IL-2 mRNA delivered by lipid nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) exhibits the unique capacity to modulate immune functions, potentially exerting antitumor effects by stimulating immune responses, making it highly promising for immunotherapy. However, the clinical use of recombinant IL-2 protein faces significant limitations due to its short half-life and systemic toxicity. To overcome these challenges and fully exploit IL-2's potential in tumor immunotherapy, this study reports the development of a tumor-activated IL-2 mRNA, delivered via lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). Initially, ionizable lipid U-101 derived nanoparticles (U-101-LNP) were prepared using microfluidic technology. Subsequent in vitro and in vivo delivery tests demonstrated that U-101-LNP achieved more effective transfection than the approved ALC-0315-LNP. Following this, IL-2F mRNAs, encoding fusion proteins comprising IL-2, a linker, and CD25 (IL-2Rα), were designed and synthesized through in vitro transcription. A cleavable linker, consisting of the peptide sequence SGRSEN↓IRTA, was selected for cleavage by matrix metalloproteinase-14 (MMP-14). IL-2F mRNA was then encapsulated in U-101-LNP to create U-101-LNP/IL-2F mRNA complexes. After optimization, assessments of expression efficiency, masking, and release characteristics revealed that IL-2F with linker C4 demonstrated superior performance. Finally, the antitumor activity of IL-2F mRNA was evaluated. The results indicated that U-101-LNP/IL-2F mRNA achieved the strongest antitumor effect, with an inhibition rate of 70.3%. Immunohistochemistry observations revealed significant expressions of IL-2, IFN-γ, and CD8, suggesting an up-regulation of immunomodulation in tumor tissues. This effect could be ascribed to the expression of IL-2F, followed by the cleavage of the linker under the action of MMP-14 in tumor tissue, which sustainably releases IL-2. H&E staining of tissues treated with U-101-LNP/IL-2F mRNA showed no abnormalities. Further evaluations indicated that the U-101-LNP/IL-2F mRNA group maintained proper levels of inflammatory factors without obvious alterations in liver and renal functions. Taken together, the U-101-LNP/IL-2F mRNA formulation demonstrated effective antitumor activity and safety, which suggests potential applicability in clinical immunotherapy.

Applications of Intravital Imaging in Cancer Immunotherapy

Currently, immunotherapy is one of the most effective treatment strategies for cancer. However, the efficacy of any specific anti-tumor immunotherapy can vary based on the dynamic characteristics of immune cells, such as their rate of migration and cell-to-cell interactions. Therefore, understanding the dynamics among cells involved in the immune response can inform the optimization and improvement of existing immunotherapy strategies. In vivo imaging technologies use optical microscopy techniques to visualize the movement and behavior of cells in vivo, including cells involved in the immune response, thereby showing great potential for application in the field of cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we briefly introduce the technical aspects required for in vivo imaging, such as fluorescent protein labeling, the construction of transgenic mice, and various window chamber models. Then, we discuss the elucidation of new phenomena and mechanisms relating to tumor immunotherapy that has been made possible by the application of in vivo imaging technology. Specifically, in vivo imaging has supported the characterization of the movement of T cells during immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy and the kinetic analysis of dendritic cell migration in tumor vaccine therapy. Finally, we provide a perspective on the challenges and future research directions for the use of in vivo imaging technology in cancer immunotherapy.

State-of-the-Art Cancer Immunotherapies

Cancer immunotherapy is a type of cancer therapy utilizing the immune system to fight against tumors [...].

Navigating the Cytokine Seas: Targeting Cytokine Signaling Pathways in Cancer Therapy

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, necessitating continuous efforts to develop effective therapeutic strategies. Over the years, advancements in our understanding of the complex interplay between the immune system and cancer cells have led to the development of immunotherapies that revolutionize cancer treatment. Cytokines, as key regulators of the immune response, are involved in both the initiation and progression of cancer by affecting inflammation and manipulating multiple intracellular signaling pathways that regulate cell growth, proliferation, and migration. Cytokines, as key regulators of inflammation, have emerged as promising candidates for cancer therapy. This review article aims to provide an overview of the significance of cytokines in cancer development and therapy by highlighting the importance of targeting cytokine signaling pathways as a potential therapeutic approach.

A facile approach to preparing personalized cancer vaccines using iron-based metal organic framework

Background

Considering the diversity of tumors, it is of great significance to develop a simple, effective, and low-cost method to prepare personalized cancer vaccines.

Methods

In this study, a facile one-pot synthetic route was developed to prepare cancer vaccines using model antigen or autologous tumor antigens based on the coordination interaction between Fe3+ ions and endogenous fumarate ligands.

Results

Herein, Fe-based metal organic framework can effectively encapsulate tumor antigens with high loading efficiency more than 80%, and act as both delivery system and adjuvants for tumor antigens. By adjusting the synthesis parameters, the obtained cancer vaccines are easily tailored from microscale rod-like morphology with lengths of about 0.8 μm (OVA-ML) to nanoscale morphology with sizes of about 50~80 nm (OVA-MS). When cocultured with antigen-presenting cells, nanoscale cancer vaccines more effectively enhance antigen uptake and Th1 cytokine secretion than microscale ones. Nanoscale cancer vaccines (OVA-MS, dLLC-MS) more effectively enhance lymph node targeting and cross-presentation of tumor antigens, mount antitumor immunity, and inhibit the growth of established tumor in tumor-bearing mice, compared with microscale cancer vaccines (OVA-ML, dLLC-ML) and free tumor antigens.

Conclusions

Our work paves the ways for a facile, rapid, and low-cost preparation approach for personalized cancer vaccines.