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Wang XQ, Du K, Chen C, Hou P, Li WF, Chen Y, Li Q, Zhou CZ. Profiling the interplay and coevolution of Microcystis aeruginosa and cyanosiphophage Mic1. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0029824. [PMID: 38695606 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00298-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
The cyanosiphophage Mic1 specifically infects the bloom-forming Microcystis aeruginosa FACHB 1339 from Lake Chaohu, China. Previous genomic analysis showed that its 92,627 bp double-stranded DNA genome consists of 98 putative open reading frames, 63% of which are of unknown function. Here, we investigated the transcriptome dynamics of Mic1 and its host using RNA sequencing. In the early, middle, and late phases of the 10 h lytic cycle, the Mic1 genes are sequentially expressed and could be further temporally grouped into two distinct clusters in each phase. Notably, six early genes, including gp49 that encodes a TnpB-like transposase, immediately reach the highest transcriptional level in half an hour, representing a pioneer cluster that rapidly regulates and redirects host metabolism toward the phage. An in-depth analysis of the host transcriptomic profile in response to Mic1 infection revealed significant upregulation of a polyketide synthase pathway and a type III-B CRISPR system, accompanied by moderate downregulation of the photosynthesis and key metabolism pathways. The constant increase of phage transcripts and relatively low replacement rate over the host transcripts indicated that Mic1 utilizes a unique strategy to gradually take over a small portion of host metabolism pathways after infection. In addition, genomic analysis of a less-infective Mic1 and a Mic1-resistant host strain further confirmed their dynamic interplay and coevolution via the frequent horizontal gene transfer. These findings provide insights into the mutual benefit and symbiosis of the highly polymorphic cyanobacteria M. aeruginosa and cyanophages. IMPORTANCE The highly polymorphic Microcystis aeruginosa is one of the predominant bloom-forming cyanobacteria in eutrophic freshwater bodies and is infected by diverse and abundant cyanophages. The presence of a large number of defense systems in M. aeruginosa genome suggests a dynamic interplay and coevolution with the cyanophages. In this study, we investigated the temporal gene expression pattern of Mic1 after infection and the corresponding transcriptional responses of its host. Moreover, the identification of a less-infective Mic1 and a Mic1-resistant host strain provided the evolved genes in the phage-host coevolution during the multiple-generation cultivation in the laboratory. Our findings enrich the knowledge on the interplay and coevolution of M. aeruginosa and its cyanophages and lay the foundation for the future application of cyanophage as a potential eco-friendly and bio-safe agent in controlling the succession of harmful cyanobacterial blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Qian Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Biomedical Sciences and Health Laboratory of Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Kang Du
- School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Biomedical Sciences and Health Laboratory of Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Chaoyi Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Biomedical Sciences and Health Laboratory of Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Pu Hou
- School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Biomedical Sciences and Health Laboratory of Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Wei-Fang Li
- School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Biomedical Sciences and Health Laboratory of Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Yuxing Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Biomedical Sciences and Health Laboratory of Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Qiong Li
- School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Biomedical Sciences and Health Laboratory of Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Cong-Zhao Zhou
- School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Biomedical Sciences and Health Laboratory of Anhui Province, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
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Aranda YN, Bhatt P, Ates N, Engel BA, Simsek H. Cyanophage-cyanobacterial interactions for sustainable aquatic environment. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 229:115728. [PMID: 36966999 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.115728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are a type of bloom-forming phytoplankton that cause environmental problems in aquatic ecosystems worldwide. Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cyanoHAB) often produce cyanotoxins that affect public health by contaminating surface waters and drinking water reservoirs. Conventional drinking water treatment plants are ineffective in treating cyanotoxins, even though some treatment methods are available. Therefore, innovative and advanced treatment methods are required to control cyanoHABs and their cyanotoxins. The goal of this review paper is to provide insight into the use of cyanophages as an effective form of biological control method for the removal of cyanoHABs in aquatic systems. Moreover, the review contains information on cyanobacterial blooms, cyanophage-cyanobacteria interactions, including infection mechanisms, as well as examples of different types of cyanobacteria and cyanophages. Moreover, the real-life application of cyanophages in marine and freshwater environments and the mode of action of cyanophages were compiled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yolanys Nadir Aranda
- Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47906, USA
| | - Pankaj Bhatt
- Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47906, USA
| | - Nuray Ates
- Department of Environmental Engineering Department, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkiye
| | - Bernard A Engel
- Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47906, USA
| | - Halis Simsek
- Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47906, USA.
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Zhou Q, Li D, Lin W, Pan L, Qian M, Wang F, Cai R, Qu C, Tong Y. Genomic Analysis of a New Freshwater Cyanophage Lbo240-yong1 Suggests a New Taxonomic Family of Bacteriophages. Viruses 2023; 15:v15040831. [PMID: 37112811 PMCID: PMC10140849 DOI: 10.3390/v15040831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
A worldwide ecological issue, cyanobacterial blooms in marine and freshwater have caused enormous losses in both the economy and the environment. Virulent cyanophages-specifically, infecting and lysing cyanobacteria-are key ecological factors involved in limiting the overall extent of the population development of cyanobacteria. Over the past three decades, reports have mainly focused on marine Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus cyanophages, while information on freshwater cyanophages remained largely unknown. In this study, a novel freshwater cyanophage, named Lbo240-yong1, was isolated via the double-layer agar plate method using Leptolyngbya boryana FACHB-240 as a host. Transmission electron microscopy observation illustrated the icosahedral head (50 ± 5 nm in diameter) and short tail (20 ± 5 nm in length) of Lbo240-yong1. Experimental infection against 37 cyanobacterial strains revealed that host-strain-specific Lbo240-yong1 could only lyse FACHB-240. The complete genome of Lbo240-yong1 is a double-stranded DNA of 39,740 bp with a G+C content of 51.99%, and it harbors 44 predicted open reading frames (ORFs). A Lbo240-yong1 ORF shared the highest identity with a gene of a filamentous cyanobacterium, hinting at a gene exchange between the cyanophage and cyanobacteria. A BLASTn search illustrated that Lbo240-yong1 had the highest sequence similarity with the Phormidium cyanophage Pf-WMP4 (89.67% identity, 84% query coverage). In the proteomic tree based on genome-wide sequence similarities, Lbo240-yong1, three Phormidium cyanophages (Pf-WMP4, Pf-WMP3, and PP), one Anabaena phage (A-4L), and one unclassified Arthronema cyanophage (Aa-TR020) formed a monophyletic group that was more deeply diverging than several other families. Pf-WMP4 is the only member of the independent genus Wumpquatrovirus that belongs to the Caudovircetes class. Pf-WMP3 and PP formed the independent genus Wumptrevirus. Anabaena phage A-4L is the only member of the independent Kozyakovvirus genus. The six cyanopodoviruses share similar gene arrangements. Eight core genes were found in them. We propose, here, to set up a new taxonomic family comprising the six freshwater cyanopodoviruses infecting filamentous cyanobacteria. This study enriched the field's knowledge of freshwater cyanophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Dengfeng Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Wei Lin
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Linting Pan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Minhua Qian
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Fei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Ruqian Cai
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Chenxin Qu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Yigang Tong
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
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Ecological Dynamics of Broad- and Narrow-Host-Range Viruses Infecting the Bloom-Forming Toxic Cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0211122. [PMID: 36688685 PMCID: PMC9972985 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02111-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Microcystis aeruginosa is predicted to interact and coexist with diverse broad- and narrow-host-range viruses within a bloom; however, little is known about their affects on Microcystis population dynamics. Here, we developed a real-time PCR assay for the quantification of these viruses that have different host ranges. During the sampling period, total Microcystis abundance showed two peaks in May and August with a temporary decrease in June. The Microcystis population is largely divided into three phylotypes based on internal transcribed sequences (ITS; ITS types I to III). ITS I was the dominant phylotype (66% to 88%) except in June. Although the ITS II and III phylotypes were mostly less abundant, these phylotypes temporarily increased to approximately equivalent abundances of the ITS I population in June. During the same sampling period, the abundances of the broad-host-range virus MVGF_NODE331 increased from April to May and from July to October with a temporary decrease in June, in which its dynamics were in proportion to the increase of total Microcystis abundances regardless of changes in host ITS population composition. In contrast, the narrow-host-range viruses MVG_NODE620 and Ma-LMM01 were considerably less abundant than the broad-host-range virus and generally did not fluctuate in the environment. Considering that M. aeruginosa could increase the abundance and sustain the bloom under the prevalence of the broad-host-range virus, host abundant and diverse antiviral mechanisms might contribute to coexistence with its viruses. IMPORTANCE The bloom-forming toxic cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa interacts with diverse broad- and narrow-host-range viruses. However, the dynamics of the Microcystis population (at the intraspecies level) and viruses with different host ranges remain unknown. Our real-time PCR assays unveiled that the broad-host-range virus gradually increased in abundance over the sampling period, in proportion to the increase in total Microcystis abundance regardless of changes in genotypic composition. The narrow-host-range viruses were considerably less abundant than the broad-host-range virus and did not generally fluctuate in the environment. The expansion and maintenance of the Microcystis bloom even under the increased infection by the broad-host-range virus suggested that highly abundant and diverse antiviral mechanisms allowed them to coexist with viruses under selective pressure. This paper expands our knowledge about the ecological dynamics of Microcystis viruses and provides potential insights into their coexistence with their host.
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Meng LH, Ke F, Zhang QY, Zhao Z. Biological and Genomic Characteristics of MaMV-DH01, a Novel Freshwater Myoviridae Cyanophage Strain. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0288822. [PMID: 36602358 PMCID: PMC9927357 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02888-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The genomic traits of cyanophages and their potential for metabolic reprogramming of the host cell remain unknown due to the limited number of studies on cyanophage isolates. In the present study, a lytic Microcystis cyanophage, MaMV-DH01, was isolated and identified. MaMV-DH01 has an icosahedral head approximately 100 nm in diameter and a tail 260 nm in length. Its burst size is large, with approximately 145 phage particles/infected cell; it has a latent period of 2 days, and it shows high stability under pH and temperature stresses. Multiple infection (multiplicity of infection [MOI] 0.0001 to 100) results showed that when the MOI was 0.0001, MaMV-DH01 needed a longer time to lyse host cells. Cyanophage MaMV-DH01 has a double-stranded DNA genome of 182,372 bp, with a GC content of 45.35% and 210 predicted open reading frames (ORFs). These ORFs are related to DNA metabolism, structural proteins, lysis, host-derived metabolic genes, and DNA packaging. Phylogenetic trees based on the whole genome and two conserved genes (TerL and capsid) indicate that MaMV-DH01 is clustered with Ma-LMM01 and MaMV-DC, which are independent of other cyanophages. Collinearity analysis showed that the complete genome of MaMV-DH01 was longer than those of Ma-LMM01 and MaMV-DC, with lengths of 20,263 bp and 13,139 bp, respectively. We verified the authenticity of these excess DNA fragments and found that they are involved to various degrees in the MaMV-DH01 transcription process. Map overlays of environmental virus macrogenomic reads onto the MaMV-DH01 genome revealed that viral sequences similar to that of MaMV-DH01 are widespread in the environment. IMPORTANCE A novel freshwater Myoviridae cyanophage strain, MaMV-DH01, was isolated; this strain infects Microcystis aeruginosa FACHB-524, and the biological and genomic characteristics of MaMV-DH01 provide new insights for understanding the mechanism by which cyanophages infect cyanobacterial blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hui Meng
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center for Marine Bio-resources Sustainable Utilization, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Fei Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Qi-Ya Zhang
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center for Marine Bio-resources Sustainable Utilization, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center for Marine Bio-resources Sustainable Utilization, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
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Fine structure and assembly pattern of a minimal myophage Pam3. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2213727120. [PMID: 36656854 PMCID: PMC9942802 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2213727120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The myophage possesses a contractile tail that penetrates its host cell envelope. Except for investigations on the bacteriophage T4 with a rather complicated structure, the assembly pattern and tail contraction mechanism of myophage remain largely unknown. Here, we present the fine structure of a freshwater Myoviridae cyanophage Pam3, which has an icosahedral capsid of ~680 Å in diameter, connected via a three-section neck to an 840-Å-long contractile tail, ending with a three-module baseplate composed of only six protein components. This simplified baseplate consists of a central hub-spike surrounded by six wedge heterotriplexes, to which twelve tail fibers are covalently attached via disulfide bonds in alternating upward and downward configurations. In vitro reduction assays revealed a putative redox-dependent mechanism of baseplate assembly and tail sheath contraction. These findings establish a minimal myophage that might become a user-friendly chassis phage in synthetic biology.
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A Novel Freshwater Cyanophage Mae-Yong1326-1 Infecting Bloom-Forming Cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. Viruses 2022; 14:v14092051. [PMID: 36146857 PMCID: PMC9503304 DOI: 10.3390/v14092051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Microcystis aeruginosa is a major harmful cyanobacterium causing water bloom worldwide. Cyanophage has been proposed as a promising tool for cyanobacterial bloom. In this study, M. aeruginosa FACHB-1326 was used as an indicator host to isolate cyanophage from Lake Taihu. The isolated Microcystis cyanophage Mae-Yong1326-1 has an elliptical head of about 47 nm in diameter and a slender flexible tail of about 340 nm in length. Mae-Yong1326-1 could lyse cyanobacterial strains across three orders (Chroococcales, Nostocales, and Oscillatoriales) in the host range experiments. Mae-Yong1326-1 was stable in stability tests, maintaining high titers at 0–40 °C and at a wide pH range of 3–12. Mae-Yong 1326-1 has a burst size of 329 PFU/cell, which is much larger than the reported Microcystis cyanophages so far. The complete genome of Mae-Yong1326-1 is a double-stranded DNA of 48, 822 bp, with a G + C content of 71.80% and long direct terminal repeats (DTR) of 366 bp, containing 57 predicted ORFs. No Mae-Yong1326-1 ORF was found to be associated with virulence factor or antibiotic resistance. PASC scanning illustrated that the highest nucleotide sequence similarity between Mae-Yong1326-1 and all known phages in databases was only 17.75%, less than 70% (the threshold to define a genus), which indicates that Mae-Yong1326-1 belongs to an unknown new genus. In the proteomic tree based on genome-wide sequence similarities, Mae-Yong1326-1 distantly clusters with three unclassified Microcystis cyanophages (MinS1, Mwe-Yong1112-1, and Mwes-Yong2). These four Microcystis cyanophages form a monophyletic clade, which separates at a node from the other clade formed by two independent families (Zierdtviridae and Orlajensenviridae) of Caudoviricetes class. We propose to establish a new family to harbor the Microcystis cyanophages Mae-Yong1326-1, MinS1, Mwe-Yong1112-1, and Mwes-Yong2. This study enriched the understanding of freshwater cyanophages.
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Du K, Yang F, Zhang JT, Yu RC, Deng Z, Li WF, Chen Y, Li Q, Zhou CZ. Comparative genomic analysis of five freshwater cyanophages and reference-guided metagenomic data mining. MICROBIOME 2022; 10:128. [PMID: 35974417 PMCID: PMC9382816 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-022-01324-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND As important producers using photosynthesis on Earth, cyanobacteria contribute to the oxygenation of atmosphere and the primary production of biosphere. However, due to the eutrophication of urban waterbodies and global warming, uncontrollable growth of cyanobacteria usually leads to the seasonal outbreak of cyanobacterial blooms. Cyanophages, a group of viruses that specifically infect and lyse cyanobacteria, are considered as potential environment-friendly agents to control the harmful blooms. Compared to the marine counterparts, only a few freshwater cyanophages have been isolated and genome sequenced to date, largely limiting their characterizations and applications. RESULTS Here, we isolated five freshwater cyanophages varying in tail morphology, termed Pam1~Pam5, all of which infect the cyanobacterium Pseudanabaena mucicola Chao 1806 that was isolated from the bloom-suffering Lake Chaohu in Anhui, China. The whole-genome sequencing showed that cyanophages Pam1~Pam5 all contain a dsDNA genome, varying in size from 36 to 142 Kb. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that Pam1~Pam5 possess different DNA packaging mechanisms and are evolutionarily distinct from each other. Notably, Pam1 and Pam5 have lysogeny-associated gene clusters, whereas Pam2 possesses 9 punctuated DNA segments identical to the CRISPR spacers in the host genome. Metagenomic data-based calculation of the relative abundance of Pam1~Pam5 at the Nanfei estuary towards the Lake Chaohu revealed that the short-tailed Pam1 and Pam5 account for the majority of the five cyanophages. Moreover, comparative analyses of the reference genomes of Pam1~Pam5 and previously reported cyanophages enabled us to identify three circular and seven linear contigs of virtual freshwater cyanophages from the metagenomic data of the Lake Chaohu. CONCLUSIONS We propose a high-throughput strategy to systematically identify cyanophages based on the currently available metagenomic data and the very limited reference genomes of experimentally isolated cyanophages. This strategy could be applied to mine the complete or partial genomes of unculturable bacteriophages and viruses. Transformation of the synthesized whole genomes of these virtual phages/viruses to proper hosts will enable the rescue of bona fide viral particles and eventually enrich the library of microorganisms that exist on Earth. Video abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Du
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Feng Yang
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Jun-Tao Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Rong-Cheng Yu
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Ziqing Deng
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083, China
- BGI-Beijing, BGI-Shenzhen, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Wei-Fang Li
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Yuxing Chen
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Qiong Li
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China.
| | - Cong-Zhao Zhou
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China.
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Liu S, Feng J, Sun T, Xu B, Zhang J, Li G, Zhou J, Jiang J. The Synthesis and Assembly of a Truncated Cyanophage Genome and Its Expression in a Heterogenous Host. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:life12081234. [PMID: 36013413 PMCID: PMC9410186 DOI: 10.3390/life12081234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cyanophages play an important role in regulating the dynamics of cyanobacteria communities in the hydrosphere, representing a promising biological control strategy for cyanobacterial blooms. Nevertheless, most cyanophages are host-specific, making it difficult to control blooming cyanobacteria via single or multiple cyanophages. In order to address the issue, we explore the interaction between cyanophages and their heterologous hosts, with the aim of revealing the principles of designing and constructing an artificial cyanophage genome towards multiple cyanobacterial hosts. In the present study, we use synthetic biological approaches to assess the impact of introducing a fragment of cyanophage genome into a heterologous cyanobacterium under a variety of environmental conditions. Based on a natural cyanophage A-4L genome (41,750 bp), a truncated cyanophage genome Syn-A-4-8 is synthesized and assembled in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We found that a 351-15,930 bp area of the A-4L genome has a fragment that is lethal to Escherichia coli during the process of attempting to assemble the full-length A-4L genome. Syn-A-4-8 was successfully introduced into E. coli and then transferred into the model cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 (Syn7942) via conjugation. Although no significant phenotypes of Syn7942 carrying Syn-A-4-8 (LS-02) could be observed under normal conditions, its growth exhibited a prolonged lag phase compared to that of the control strain under 290-millimolar NaCl stress. Finally, the mechanisms of altered salt tolerance in LS-02 were revealed through comparative transcriptomics, and ORF25 and ORF26 on Syn-A-4-8 turned out to be the key genes causing the phenotype. Our research represents an important attempt in designing artificial cyanophages towards multiple hosts, and offers new future insights into the control of cyanobacterial blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shujing Liu
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Jia Feng
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Tao Sun
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Center for Biosafety Research and Strategy, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Bonan Xu
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Jiabao Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Guorui Li
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Jianting Zhou
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Correspondence: (J.Z.); (J.J.)
| | - Jianlan Jiang
- School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Correspondence: (J.Z.); (J.J.)
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Cai R, Li D, Lin W, Qin W, Pan L, Wang F, Qian M, Liu W, Zhou Q, Zhou C, Tong Y. Genome sequence of the novel freshwater Microcystis cyanophage Mwe-Yong1112-1. Arch Virol 2022; 167:2371-2376. [PMID: 35857150 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-022-05542-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The freshwater cyanophage Mwe-Yong1112-1 was isolated using Microcystis wesenbergii as a host and found to have an icosahedral head, about 45 nm in diameter, and a flexible tail, approximately 133 nm in length and 4.5 nm in width. The complete genome of the cyanophage is 39,679 bp in length with a G+C content of 66.6%. Mwe-Yong1112-1 shared the highest pairwise average nucleotide identity (ANI) value of 67.7% (below the ≥95% boundary to define a species) and the highest nucleotide sequence similarity of 17.48% (below the >70% boundary to define a genus) with the most closely related phage. In a proteomic tree, Mwe-Yong1112-1 and three unclassified phages formed a monophyletic clade between the families Saparoviridae and Pyrstoviridae, but Mwe-Yong1112-1 occupied a separate branch from the other three phages, suggesting that it represents a new evolutionary lineage. This study enriches the available information about freshwater cyanophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruqian Cai
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China.,College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315832, China
| | - Dengfeng Li
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China.
| | - Wei Lin
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China.,College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Weinan Qin
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Lingting Pan
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Fei Wang
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Minhua Qian
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Wencai Liu
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Qin Zhou
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Chengxu Zhou
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315832, China
| | - Yigang Tong
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, 100029, China
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11
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Zhang B, Sun H, Zhao F, Wang Q, Pan Q, Tong Y, Ren H. Characterization and Genomic Analysis of a Novel Jumbo Bacteriophage vB_StaM_SA1 Infecting Staphylococcus aureus With Two Lysins. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:856473. [PMID: 35572667 PMCID: PMC9096886 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.856473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of new antimicrobial agents is critically needed due to the alarming increase in antibiotic resistance in bacterial pathogens. Phages have been widely considered as effective alternatives to antibiotics. A novel phage vB_StaM_SA1 (hereinafter as SA1) that can infect multiple Staphylococcus strains was isolated from untreated sewage of a pig farm, which belonged to Myoviridae family. At MOI of 0.1, the latent period of phage SA1 was 55 min, and the final titer reached about 109 PFU/mL. The genome of phage SA1 was 260,727 bp, indicating that it can be classified as a jumbo phage. The genome of SA1 had 258 ORFs and a serine tRNA, while only 53 ORFs were annotated with functions. Phage SA1 contained a group of core genes that was characterized by multiple RNA polymerase subunits and also found in phiKZ-related jumbo phages. The phylogenetic tree showed that phage SA1 was a phiKZ-related phage and was closer to jumbo phages compared with Staphylococcus phages with small genome. Three proteins (lys4, lys210, and lys211) were predicted to be associated with lysins, and two proteins with lytic function were verified by recombinant expression and bacterial survival test. Both lys210 and lys211 possessed efficient bactericidal ability, and lys210 could lyse all test strains. The results show that phage SA1 and lys210/lys211 could be potentially used as antibiotic agents to treat Staphylococcus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingyan Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China.,College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Huzhi Sun
- Qingdao Phagepharm Bio-tech Co., Ltd., Qingdao, China
| | - Feiyang Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qian Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qiang Pan
- Qingdao Phagepharm Bio-tech Co., Ltd., Qingdao, China
| | - Yigang Tong
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Huiying Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
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12
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Meng LH, Ke F, Zhang QY, Zhao Z. Functional Analysis of the Endopeptidase and Holin From Planktothrix agardhii Cyanophage PaV-LD. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:849492. [PMID: 35572663 PMCID: PMC9096620 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.849492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A cyanophage PaV-LD, previously isolated from harmful filamentous cyanobacterium Planktothrix agardhii, was sequenced, and co-expression of its two ORFs in tandem, ORF123 and ORF124, inhibited growth on the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 cells. However, the mechanism of action of ORF123 and ORF124 alone remains to be elucidated. In this study, we aimed to study the individual function of ORF123 or ORF124 from PaV-LD. Our data showed that the ORF123 encoded an endopeptidase, which harbored an M23 family peptidase domain and a transmembrane region. The expression of the endopeptidase in Escherichia coli alone revealed that the protein exhibited remarkable bacteriostatic activity, as evidenced by observation of growth inhibition, membrane damage, and leakage of the intracellular enzyme. Similarly, the holin, a membrane-associated protein encoded by the ORF124, showed weak bacteriostatic activity on E. coli. Moreover, deletion mutations indicated that the transmembrane domains of endopeptidase and holin were indispensable for their bacteriostatic activity. Meanwhile, the bacteriostatic functions of endopeptidase and holin on cyanobacteria cells were confirmed by expressing them in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803. Collectively, our study revealed the individual role of endopeptidase or holin and their synergistic bacteriolytic effect, which would contribute to a better understanding of the lytic mechanism of cyanophage PaV-LD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hui Meng
- Department of Marine Biology, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Fei Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Qi-Ya Zhang
- Department of Marine Biology, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Department of Marine Biology, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
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13
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Zhang D, He Y, Gin KYH. Genomic Characterization of a Novel Freshwater Cyanophage Reveals a New Lineage of Cyanopodovirus. Front Microbiol 2022; 12:768868. [PMID: 35095789 PMCID: PMC8790148 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.768868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are one of the dominant autotrophs in tropical freshwater communities, yet phages infecting them remain poorly characterized. Here we present the characterization of cyanophage S-SRP02, isolated from a tropical freshwater lake in Singapore, which infects Synechococcus sp. Strain SR-C1 isolated from the same lake. S-SRP02 represents a new evolutionary lineage of cyanophage. Out of 47 open reading frames (ORFs), only 20 ORFs share homology with genes encoding proteins of known function. There is lack of auxiliary metabolic genes which was commonly found as core genes in marine cyanopodoviruses. S-SRP02 also harbors unique structural genes highly divergent from other cultured phages. Phylogenetic analysis and viral proteomic tree further demonstrate the divergence of S-SRP02 from other sequenced phage isolates. Nonetheless, S-SRP02 shares synteny with phage genes of uncultured phages obtained from the Mediterranean Sea deep chlorophyll maximum fosmids, indicating the ecological importance of S-SRP02 and its related viruses. This is further supported by metagenomic mapping of environmental viral metagenomic reads onto the S-SRP02 genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Zhang
- NUS Environmental Research Institute (E2S2-CREATE), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yiliang He
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Karina Yew-Hoong Gin
- NUS Environmental Research Institute (E2S2-CREATE), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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14
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Qian M, Li D, Lin W, Pan L, Liu W, Zhou Q, Cai R, Wang F, Zhu J, Tong Y. A Novel Freshwater Cyanophage, Mae-Yong924-1, Reveals a New Family. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020283. [PMID: 35215876 PMCID: PMC8875630 DOI: 10.3390/v14020283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms are a worldwide ecological issue. Cyanophages are aquatic viruses specifically infecting cyanobacteria. Little is known about freshwater cyanophages. In this study, a freshwater cyanophage, Mae-Yong924-1, was isolated by the double-layer agar plate method using Microcystis aeruginosa FACHB-924 as an indicator host. Mae-Yong924-1 has several unusual characteristics: a unique shape, cross-taxonomic order infectivity and a very unique genome sequence. Mae-Yong924-1 contains a nearly spherical head of about 100 nm in diameter. The tail or tail-like structure (approximately 40 nm in length) is like the tassel of a round Chinese lantern. It could lyse six diverse cyanobacteria strains across three orders including Chroococcales, Nostocales and Oscillatoriales. The genome of the cyanophage is 40,325 bp in length, with a G + C content of 48.32%, and 59 predicted open reading frames (ORFs), only 12 (20%) of which were functionally annotated. Both BLASTn and BLASTx scanning resulted in “No significant similarity found”, i.e., the Mae-Yong924-1 genome shared extremely low homology with sequences in NCBI databases. Mae-Yong924-1 formed a root node alone and monopolized a root branch in the proteomic tree based on genome-wide sequence similarities. The results suggest that Mae-Yong924-1 may reveal a new unknown family apparently distinct from other viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minhua Qian
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (M.Q.); (W.L.); (L.P.); (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (R.C.); (F.W.); (J.Z.)
| | - Dengfeng Li
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (M.Q.); (W.L.); (L.P.); (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (R.C.); (F.W.); (J.Z.)
- Correspondence: (D.L.); (Y.T.); Tel.: +86-13819823176 (D.L.); +86-13611272813 (Y.T.)
| | - Wei Lin
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (M.Q.); (W.L.); (L.P.); (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (R.C.); (F.W.); (J.Z.)
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Lingting Pan
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (M.Q.); (W.L.); (L.P.); (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (R.C.); (F.W.); (J.Z.)
| | - Wencai Liu
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (M.Q.); (W.L.); (L.P.); (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (R.C.); (F.W.); (J.Z.)
| | - Qin Zhou
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (M.Q.); (W.L.); (L.P.); (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (R.C.); (F.W.); (J.Z.)
| | - Ruqian Cai
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (M.Q.); (W.L.); (L.P.); (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (R.C.); (F.W.); (J.Z.)
| | - Fei Wang
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (M.Q.); (W.L.); (L.P.); (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (R.C.); (F.W.); (J.Z.)
| | - Junquan Zhu
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (M.Q.); (W.L.); (L.P.); (W.L.); (Q.Z.); (R.C.); (F.W.); (J.Z.)
| | - Yigang Tong
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- Correspondence: (D.L.); (Y.T.); Tel.: +86-13819823176 (D.L.); +86-13611272813 (Y.T.)
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15
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Host Cyanobacteria Killing by Novel Lytic Cyanophage YongM: A Protein Profiling Analysis. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10020257. [PMID: 35208712 PMCID: PMC8875764 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10020257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are autotrophic prokaryotes that can proliferate robustly in eutrophic waters through photosynthesis. This can lead to outbreaks of lake “water blooms”, which result in water quality reduction and environmental pollution that seriously affect fisheries and aquaculture. The use of cyanophages to control the growth of cyanobacteria is an important strategy to tackle annual cyanobacterial blooms. YongM is a novel lytic cyanophage with a broad host spectrum and high efficiency in killing its host, cyanobacteria FACHB-596. However, changes in cyanophage protein profile during infestation and killing of the host remains unknown. To characterize the proteins and its regulation networks involved in the killing of host cyanobacteria by YongM and evaluate whether this strain YongM could be used as a chassis for further engineering to be a powerful tool in dealing with cyanobacterial blooms, we herein applied 4D label-free high-throughput quantitative proteomics to analyze differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) involved in cyanobacteria host response infected 1 and 8 h with YongM cyanophage. Metabolic pathways, such as photosynthesis, photosynthesis-antennal protein, oxidative phosphorylation, ribosome, carbon fixation, and glycolysis/glycol-isomerization were significantly altered in the infested host, whereas DEPs were associated with the metabolic processes of photosynthesis, precursor metabolites, energy production, and organic nitrogen compounds. Among these DEPs, key proteins involved in YongM-host interaction may be photosystem I P700 chlorophyll-a apolipoprotein, carbon dioxide concentration mechanism protein, cytochrome B, and some YongM infection lysis-related enzymes. Our results provide comprehensive information of protein profiles during the invasion and killing of host cyanobacteria by its cyanophage, which may shed light on future design and manipulation of artificial cyanophages against water blooms.
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16
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Zhang JT, Yang F, Du K, Li WF, Chen Y, Jiang YL, Li Q, Zhou CZ. Structure and assembly pattern of a freshwater short-tailed cyanophage Pam1. Structure 2021; 30:240-251.e4. [PMID: 34727518 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2021.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Despite previous structural analyses of bacteriophages, quite little is known about the structures and assembly patterns of cyanophages. Using cryo-EM combined with crystallography, we solve the near-atomic-resolution structure of a freshwater short-tailed cyanophage, Pam1, which comprises a 400-Å-long tail and an icosahedral capsid of 650 Å in diameter. The outer capsid surface is reinforced by trimeric cement proteins with a β-sandwich fold, which structurally resemble the distal motif of Pam1's tailspike, suggesting its potential role in host recognition. At the portal vertex, the dodecameric portal and connected adaptor, followed by a hexameric needle head, form a DNA ejection channel, which is sealed by a trimeric needle. Moreover, we identify a right-handed rifling pattern that might help DNA to revolve along the wall of the ejection channel. Our study reveals the precise assembly pattern of a cyanophage and lays the foundation to support its practical biotechnological and environmental applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Tao Zhang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Feng Yang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Kang Du
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Wei-Fang Li
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Yuxing Chen
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Yong-Liang Jiang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China.
| | - Qiong Li
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China.
| | - Cong-Zhao Zhou
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China.
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17
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Dick GJ, Duhaime MB, Evans JT, Errera RM, Godwin CM, Kharbush JJ, Nitschky HS, Powers MA, Vanderploeg HA, Schmidt KC, Smith DJ, Yancey CE, Zwiers CC, Denef VJ. The genetic and ecophysiological diversity of Microcystis. Environ Microbiol 2021; 23:7278-7313. [PMID: 34056822 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Microcystis is a cyanobacterium that forms toxic blooms in freshwater ecosystems around the world. Biological variation among taxa within the genus is apparent through genetic and phenotypic differences between strains and via the spatial and temporal distribution of strains in the environment, and this fine-scale diversity exerts strong influence over bloom toxicity. Yet we do not know how varying traits of Microcystis strains govern their environmental distribution, the tradeoffs and links between these traits, or how they are encoded at the genomic level. Here we synthesize current knowledge on the importance of diversity within Microcystis and on the genes and traits that likely underpin ecological differentiation of taxa. We briefly review spatial and environmental patterns of Microcystis diversity in the field and genetic evidence for cohesive groups within Microcystis. We then compile data on strain-level diversity regarding growth responses to environmental conditions and explore evidence for variation of community interactions across Microcystis strains. Potential links and tradeoffs between traits are identified and discussed. The resulting picture, while incomplete, highlights key knowledge gaps that need to be filled to enable new models for predicting strain-level dynamics, which influence the development, toxicity and cosmopolitan nature of Microcystis blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory J Dick
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Melissa B Duhaime
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jacob T Evans
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Reagan M Errera
- National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Great Lakes Environmental Research Lab, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Casey M Godwin
- School for Environment and Sustainability, Cooperative Institute for Great Lakes Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jenan J Kharbush
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Helena S Nitschky
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - McKenzie A Powers
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Henry A Vanderploeg
- National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Great Lakes Environmental Research Lab, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Kathryn C Schmidt
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Derek J Smith
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Colleen E Yancey
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Claire C Zwiers
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Vincent J Denef
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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18
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Feng X, Yan W, Wang A, Ma R, Chen X, Lin TH, Chen YL, Wei S, Jin T, Jiao N, Zhang R. A Novel Broad Host Range Phage Infecting Alteromonas. Viruses 2021; 13:v13060987. [PMID: 34073246 PMCID: PMC8228385 DOI: 10.3390/v13060987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteriophages substantially contribute to bacterial mortality in the ocean and play critical roles in global biogeochemical processes. Alteromonas is a ubiquitous bacterial genus in global tropical and temperate waters, which can cross-protect marine cyanobacteria and thus has important ecological benefits. However, little is known about the biological and ecological features of Alteromonas phages (alterophages). Here, we describe a novel alterophage vB_AmeP-R8W (R8W), which belongs to the Autographiviridae family and infects the deep-clade Alteromonas mediterranea. R8W has an equidistant and icosahedral head (65 ± 1 nm in diameter) and a short tail (12 ± 2 nm in length). The genome size of R8W is 48,825 bp, with a G + C content of 40.55%. R8W possesses three putative auxiliary metabolic genes encoding proteins involved in nucleotide metabolism and DNA binding: thymidylate synthase, nucleoside triphosphate pyrophosphohydrolase, and PhoB. R8W has a rapid lytic cycle with a burst size of 88 plaque-forming units/cell. Notably, R8W has a wide host range, such that it can infect 35 Alteromonas strains; it exhibits a strong specificity for strains isolated from deep waters. R8W has two specific receptor binding proteins and a compatible holin-endolysin system, which contribute to its wide host range. The isolation of R8W will contribute to the understanding of alterophage evolution, as well as the phage-host interactions and ecological importance of alterophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejin Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Carbon Sequestration, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (X.F.); (W.Y.); (A.W.); (R.M.); (X.C.); (T.-H.L.); (Y.-L.C.); (S.W.)
| | - Wei Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Carbon Sequestration, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (X.F.); (W.Y.); (A.W.); (R.M.); (X.C.); (T.-H.L.); (Y.-L.C.); (S.W.)
- College of Marine Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Anan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Carbon Sequestration, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (X.F.); (W.Y.); (A.W.); (R.M.); (X.C.); (T.-H.L.); (Y.-L.C.); (S.W.)
| | - Ruijie Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Carbon Sequestration, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (X.F.); (W.Y.); (A.W.); (R.M.); (X.C.); (T.-H.L.); (Y.-L.C.); (S.W.)
| | - Xiaowei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Carbon Sequestration, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (X.F.); (W.Y.); (A.W.); (R.M.); (X.C.); (T.-H.L.); (Y.-L.C.); (S.W.)
| | - Ta-Hui Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Carbon Sequestration, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (X.F.); (W.Y.); (A.W.); (R.M.); (X.C.); (T.-H.L.); (Y.-L.C.); (S.W.)
| | - Yi-Lung Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Carbon Sequestration, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (X.F.); (W.Y.); (A.W.); (R.M.); (X.C.); (T.-H.L.); (Y.-L.C.); (S.W.)
| | - Shuzhen Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Carbon Sequestration, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (X.F.); (W.Y.); (A.W.); (R.M.); (X.C.); (T.-H.L.); (Y.-L.C.); (S.W.)
| | - Tao Jin
- Guangzhou Magigene Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou 510000, China;
| | - Nianzhi Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Carbon Sequestration, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (X.F.); (W.Y.); (A.W.); (R.M.); (X.C.); (T.-H.L.); (Y.-L.C.); (S.W.)
- Correspondence: (N.J.); (R.Z.)
| | - Rui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Carbon Sequestration, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (X.F.); (W.Y.); (A.W.); (R.M.); (X.C.); (T.-H.L.); (Y.-L.C.); (S.W.)
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519080, China
- Correspondence: (N.J.); (R.Z.)
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19
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Naknaen A, Suttinun O, Surachat K, Khan E, Pomwised R. A Novel Jumbo Phage PhiMa05 Inhibits Harmful Microcystis sp. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:660351. [PMID: 33959116 PMCID: PMC8093824 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.660351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Microcystis poses a concern because of its potential contribution to eutrophication and production of microcystins (MCs). Phage treatment has been proposed as a novel biocontrol method for Microcystis. Here, we isolated a lytic cyanophage named PhiMa05 with high efficiency against MCs-producing Microcystis strains. Its burst size was large, with approximately 127 phage particles/infected cell, a short latent period (1 day), and high stability to broad salinity, pH and temperature ranges. The PhiMa05 structure was composed of an icosahedral capsid (100 nm) and tail (120 nm), suggesting that the PhiMa05 belongs to the Myoviridae family. PhiMa05 inhibited both planktonic and aggregated forms of Microcystis in a concentration-dependent manner. The lysis of Microcystis resulted in a significant reduction of total MCs compared to the uninfected cells. A genome analysis revealed that PhiMa05 is a double-stranded DNA virus with a 273,876 bp genome, considered a jumbo phage. Out of 254 predicted open reading frames (ORFs), only 54 ORFs were assigned as putative functional proteins. These putative proteins are associated with DNA metabolisms, structural proteins, host lysis and auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs), while no lysogenic, toxin and antibiotic resistance genes were observed in the genome. The AMGs harbored in the phage genome are known to be involved in energy metabolism [photosynthesis and tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA)] and nucleotide biosynthesis genes. Their functions suggested boosting and redirecting host metabolism during viral infection. Comparative genome analysis with other phages in the database indicated that PhiMa05 is unique. Our study highlights the characteristics and genome analysis of a novel jumbo phage, PhiMa05. PhiMa05 is a potential phage for controlling Microcystis bloom and minimizing MC occurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ampapan Naknaen
- Environmental Assessment and Technology for Hazardous Waste Management Research Center, Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand
| | - Oramas Suttinun
- Environmental Assessment and Technology for Hazardous Waste Management Research Center, Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand
- Center of Excellence on Hazardous Substance Management (HSM), Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Komwit Surachat
- Division of Computational Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand
- Molecular Evolution and Computational Biology Research Unit, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand
| | - Eakalak Khan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, United States
| | - Rattanaruji Pomwised
- Division of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand
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Pound HL, Wilhelm SW. Tracing the active genetic diversity of Microcystis and Microcystis phage through a temporal survey of Taihu. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0244482. [PMID: 33370358 PMCID: PMC7769430 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms are commonly thought to be dominated by a single genus, but they are not homogenous communities. Current approaches, both molecular and culture-based, often overlook fine-scale variations in community composition that can influence bloom dynamics. We combined homology-based searches (BLASTX) and phylogenetics to distinguish and quantify Microcystis host and phage members across a summer season during a 2014 Microcystis- dominated bloom that occurred in Lake Tai (Taihu), China. We found 47 different genotypes of the Microcystis-specific DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (rpoB), which included several morphospecies. Microcystis flos-aquae and Microcystis wesenbergii accounted for ~86% of total Microcystis transcripts, while the more commonly studied Microcystis aeruginosa only accounted for ~7%. Microcystis genotypes were classified into three temporal groups according to their expression patterns across the course of the bloom: early, constant and late. All Microcystis morphospecies were present in each group, indicating that expression patterns were likely dictated by competition driven by environmental factors, not phylogeny. We identified three primary Microcystis-infecting phages based on the viral terminase, including a novel Siphoviridae phage that may be capable of lysogeny. Within our dataset, Myoviridae phages consistent with those infecting Microcystis in a lytic manner were positively correlated to the early host genotypes, while the Siphoviridae phages were positively correlated to the late host genotypes, when the Myoviridae phages express putative genetic markers for lysogeny. The expression of genes in the microcystin-encoding mcy cassette was estimated using mcyA, which revealed 24 Microcystis-specific genotypes that were negatively correlated to the early host genotypes. Of all environmental factors measured, pH best described the temporal shift in the Microcystis community genotypic composition, promoting hypotheses regarding carbon concentration mechanisms and oxidative stress. Our work expounds on the complexity of HAB events, using a well-studied dataset to highlight the need for increased resolution of community dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena L. Pound
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Steven W. Wilhelm
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States of America
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McKindles KM, Manes MA, DeMarco JR, McClure A, McKay RM, Davis TW, Bullerjahn GS. Dissolved Microcystin Release Coincident with Lysis of a Bloom Dominated by Microcystis spp. in Western Lake Erie Attributed to a Novel Cyanophage. Appl Environ Microbiol 2020; 86:e01397-20. [PMID: 32859600 PMCID: PMC7642080 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01397-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Western Lake Erie (Laurentian Great Lakes) is prone to annual cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cHABs) dominated by Microcystis spp. that often yield microcystin toxin concentrations exceeding the federal EPA recreational contact advisory of 8 μg liter-1 In August 2014, microcystin levels were detected in finished drinking water above the World Health Organization 1.0 μg liter-1 threshold for consumption, leading to a 2-day disruption in the supply of drinking water for >400,000 residents of Toledo, Ohio (USA). Subsequent metatranscriptomic analysis of the 2014 bloom event provided evidence that release of toxin into the water supply was likely caused by cyanophage lysis that transformed a portion of the intracellular microcystin pool into the dissolved fraction, rendering it more difficult to eliminate during treatment. In August 2019, a similar increase in dissolved microcystins at the Toledo water intake was coincident with a viral lytic event caused by a phage consortium different in composition from what was detected following the 2014 Toledo water crisis. The most abundant viral sequence in metagenomic data sets was a scaffold from a putative member of the Siphoviridae, distinct from the Ma-LMM01-like Myoviridae that are typically documented to occur in western Lake Erie. This study provides further evidence that viral activity in western Lake Erie plays a significant role in transformation of microcystins from the particulate to the dissolved fraction and therefore requires monitoring efforts from local water treatment plants. Additionally, identification of multiple lytic cyanophages will enable the development of a quantitative PCR toolbox to assess viral activity during cHABs.IMPORTANCE Viral attack on cHABs may contribute to changes in community composition during blooms, as well as bloom decline, yet loss of bloom biomass does not eliminate the threat of cHAB toxicity. Rather, it may increase risks to the public by delivering a pool of dissolved toxin directly into water treatment utilities when the dominating Microcystis spp. are capable of producing microcystins. Detecting, characterizing, and quantifying the major cyanophages involved in lytic events will assist water treatment plant operators in making rapid decisions regarding the pool of microcystins entering the plant and the corresponding best practices to neutralize the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn M McKindles
- Department of Biological Sciences and Great Lakes Center for Fresh Waters and Human Health, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA
| | - Makayla A Manes
- Department of Biological Sciences and Great Lakes Center for Fresh Waters and Human Health, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA
| | - Jonathan R DeMarco
- Department of Biological Sciences and Great Lakes Center for Fresh Waters and Human Health, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA
| | - Andrew McClure
- Division of Water Treatment for the City of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, USA
| | - R Michael McKay
- Department of Biological Sciences and Great Lakes Center for Fresh Waters and Human Health, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA
- Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, Canada
| | - Timothy W Davis
- Department of Biological Sciences and Great Lakes Center for Fresh Waters and Human Health, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA
- Center for Great Lakes and Watershed Studies, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA
| | - George S Bullerjahn
- Department of Biological Sciences and Great Lakes Center for Fresh Waters and Human Health, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA
- Center for Great Lakes and Watershed Studies, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA
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Morimoto D, Šulčius S, Yoshida T. Viruses of freshwater bloom-forming cyanobacteria: genomic features, infection strategies and coexistence with the host. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2020; 12:486-502. [PMID: 32754956 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.12872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Freshwater bloom-forming cyanobacteria densely grow in the aquatic environments, leading to an increase in the viral-contact rate. They possess numerous antiviral genes, as well as cell differentiation- and physiological performance-related genes, owing to genome expansion. Their genomic features and unique lifestyles suggest that they coexist with cyanoviruses in ways different from marine cyanobacteria. Furthermore, genome contents of isolated freshwater bloom-forming cyanobacterial viruses have little in common with those of marine cyanoviruses studied to date. They lack the marine cyanoviral hallmark genes that sustain photosynthetic activity and redirect host metabolism to viral reproduction; therefore, they are predicted to share metabolisms and precursor pools with host cyanobacteria to ensure efficient viral reproduction and avoid nutrient deficiencies and antiviral response. Additionally, cyanovirus-cyanobacteria coexistence strategies may change as bloom density increases. Diverse genotypic populations of cyanoviruses and hosts coexist and fluctuate under high viral-contact rate conditions, leading to their rapid coevolution through antiviral responses. The ancestral and newly evolved genotypes coexist, thereby expanding the diversity levels of host and viral populations. Bottleneck events occurring due to season-related decreases in bloom-forming species abundance provide each genotype within cyanobacterial population an equal chance to increase in prevalence during the next bloom and enhance further diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daichi Morimoto
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwake, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Sigitas Šulčius
- Laboratory of Algology and Microbial Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, Vilnius, 08412, Lithuania
| | - Takashi Yoshida
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwake, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
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23
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Wang Y, Jin H, Yang F, Jiang YL, Zhao YY, Chen ZP, Li WF, Chen Y, Zhou CZ, Li Q. Crystal structure of a novel fold protein Gp72 from the freshwater cyanophage Mic1. Proteins 2020; 88:1226-1232. [PMID: 32337767 DOI: 10.1002/prot.25896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Cyanophages, widespread in aquatic systems, are a class of viruses that specifically infect cyanobacteria. Though they play important roles in modulating the homeostasis of cyanobacterial populations, little is known about the freshwater cyanophages, especially those hypothetical proteins of unknown function. Mic1 is a freshwater siphocyanophage isolated from the Lake Chaohu. It encodes three hypothetical proteins Gp65, Gp66, and Gp72, which share an identity of 61.6% to 83%. However, we find these three homologous proteins differ from each other in oligomeric state. Moreover, we solve the crystal structure of Gp72 at 2.3 Å, which represents a novel fold in the α + β class. Structural analyses combined with redox assays enable us to propose a model of disulfide bond mediated oligomerization for Gp72. Altogether, these findings provide structural and biochemical basis for further investigations on the freshwater cyanophage Mic1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Hua Jin
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Feng Yang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yong-Liang Jiang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yan-Yan Zhao
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Zhi-Peng Chen
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Wei-Fang Li
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yuxing Chen
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Cong-Zhao Zhou
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Qiong Li
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
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