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Riva F, Eckersall PD, Chadwick CC, Chadwick LC, McKeegan DEF, Peinado-Izaguerri J, Bruggeman G, Hermans D, McLaughlin M, Bain M. Identification of novel biomarkers of acute phase response in chickens challenged with Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide endotoxin. BMC Vet Res 2024; 20:236. [PMID: 38824607 PMCID: PMC11143708 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-024-04062-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The chicken's inflammatory response is an essential part of the bird's response to infection. A single dose of Escherichia coli (E. coli) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) endotoxin can activate the acute phase response (APR) and lead to the production of acute phase proteins (APPs). In this study, the responses of established chicken APPs, Serum amyloid A (SAA) and Alpha-1-acid-glycoprotein (AGP), were compared to two novel APPs, Hemopexin (Hpx) and Extracellular fatty acid binding protein (Ex-FABP), in 15-day old broilers over a time course of 48 h post E.coli LPS challenge. We aimed to investigate and validate their role as biomarkers of an APR. Novel plant extracts, Citrus (CTS) and cucumber (CMB), were used as dietary supplements to investigate their ability to reduce the inflammatory response initiated by the endotoxin. RESULTS A significant increase of established (SAA, AGP) and novel (Ex-FABP, Hpx) APPs was detected post E.coli LPS challenge. Extracellular fatty acid binding protein (Ex-FABP) showed a similar early response to SAA post LPS challenge by increasing ~ 20-fold at 12 h post challenge (P < 0.001). Hemopexin (Hpx) showed a later response by increasing ∼5-fold at 24 h post challenge (P < 0.001) with a similar trend to AGP. No differences in APP responses were identified between diets (CTS and CMB) using any of the established or novel biomarkers. CONCLUSIONS Hpx and Ex-FABP were confirmed as potential biomarkers of APR in broilers when using an E. coli LPS model along with SAA and AGP. However, no clear advantage for using either of dietary supplements to modulate the APR was identified at the dosage used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Riva
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, High St, Paisley, PA1 2BE, UK
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Rd, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Radoslava Cimermana, Zagreb, 10000, Croatia
| | - Peter D Eckersall
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Rd, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
| | | | - Laura C Chadwick
- Life Diagnostics, P124 Turner Lane, West Chester, PA, 19380, USA
| | - Dorothy E F McKeegan
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Rd, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
| | - Jorge Peinado-Izaguerri
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Rd, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Komenského, Košice, 041 81, Slovakia
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Function, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | | | - David Hermans
- Nutrition Sciences N. V, Booiebos, Ghent, B-9031, Belgium
| | - Mark McLaughlin
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Rd, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK.
| | - Maureen Bain
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Rd, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
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Guillén S, Domínguez L, Mañas P, Álvarez I, Carrasco E, Cebrián G. Modelling the low temperature growth boundaries of Salmonella Enteritidis in raw and pasteurized egg yolk, egg white and liquid whole egg: Influence of the initial concentration. Int J Food Microbiol 2024; 414:110619. [PMID: 38367341 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2024.110619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/19/2024]
Abstract
Salmonella is the most frequently reported cause of foodborne outbreaks with known origin in Europe, with eggs and egg products standing out as the most frequent food source (when it was known). The growth and survival of Salmonella in eggs and egg products have been extensively studied and, recently, it has been reported that factors such as the initial concentration and thermal history of the egg product can also influence its growth capability. Therefore, the objective of this study was to define the boundary zones of the growth/no growth domain of Salmonella Enteritidis (4 strains) as a function of temperature (low temperature boundary) and the initial concentration in different egg products. A series of polynomial logistic regression equations were successfully adjusted, allowing the study of these factors and their interaction on the probability of growth of S. Enteritidis in these products. Results obtained indicate that the minimum growth temperatures of Salmonella Enteritidis are higher in egg white (9.5-18.3 °C) than in egg yolk (7.1-7.8 °C) or liquid whole egg (7.2-7.9 °C). Results also demonstrate that in raw liquid whole egg and raw and pasteurized egg white, the minimum growth temperature of Salmonella Enteritidis does depend on the initial concentration. Similarly, the previous thermal history of the egg product only influenced the minimum growth temperature in some of them. On the other hand, large differences in the minimum growth temperatures among strains were observed in some products (up to approx. 6 °C in egg white). Finally, it should be noted that none of the strains grew at 5 °C under any of the conditions assayed. Therefore, storage of egg products (particularly whole liquid egg and egg yolk) below this temperature might be regarded/proposed as a good management approach. Our experimental approach has allowed us to provide a more accurate prediction of S. Enteritidis minimum growth temperatures in egg products by taking into account additional factors (initial concentration and thermal history) while also providing a quantification of the intra-specie variability. This would be of high relevance for improving the safety of egg products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Guillén
- Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Lara Domínguez
- Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Pilar Mañas
- Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Ignacio Álvarez
- Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Elena Carrasco
- Departamento de Bromatología y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario CeiA3, UIC ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Guillermo Cebrián
- Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain.
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3
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Gast RK, Dittoe DK, Ricke SC. Salmonella in eggs and egg-laying chickens: pathways to effective control. Crit Rev Microbiol 2024; 50:39-63. [PMID: 36583653 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2022.2156772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Eggs contaminated with Salmonella have been internationally significant sources of human illness for several decades. Most egg-associated illness has been attributed to Salmonella serovar Enteritidis, but a few other serovars (notably S. Heidelberg and S. Typhimurium) are also sometimes implicated. The edible interior contents of eggs typically become contaminated with S. Enteritidis because the pathogen's unique virulence attributes enable it to colonize reproductive tissues in systemically infected laying hens. Other serovars are more commonly associated with surface contamination of eggshells. Both research and field experience have demonstrated that the most effective overall Salmonella control strategy in commercial laying flocks is the application of multiple interventions throughout the egg production cycle. At the preharvest (egg production) level, intervention options of demonstrated efficacy include vaccination and gastrointestinal colonization control via treatments such as prebiotics, probiotics, and bacteriophages, Effective environmental management of housing systems used for commercial laying flocks is also essential for minimizing opportunities for the introduction, transmission, and persistence of Salmonella in laying flocks. At the postharvest (egg processing and handling) level, careful regulation of egg storage temperatures is critical for limiting Salmonella multiplication inside the interior contents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Gast
- U.S. National Poultry Research Center, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Dana K Dittoe
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Meat Science and Animal Biologics Discovery Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Steven C Ricke
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Meat Science and Animal Biologics Discovery Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
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4
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Hu G, Liu L, Miao X, Zhao Y, Peng Y, Liu L, Li X. The response of cecal microbiota to inflammatory state induced by Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:963678. [PMID: 36090066 PMCID: PMC9453680 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.963678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
By combining the experiments of reciprocal crosses of chicken infected with Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis (S. Enteritidis), we focused on the common response of cecal microbiota to an inflammatory state in respect of transcriptome and microbiome. The inoculation of S. Enteritidis improved the microbial diversity and promoted the microbiota evolution in our infection model. Correlation analysis between bacteria and inflammation-related genes showed that some intestinal microorganisms were “inflammophile” and thrived in an inflamed environment. The global function of cecal microbiome was to maintain the homeostasis likely by the up-regulation of microbial metabolism pathway in bacitracin, putrescine, and flavonoids production, although the bacitracin may affect the symbiotic bacteria Enterococcus. The action of S. Enteritidis had close relationships with multiple inflammation-related genes, including the genes PTAFR, LY96, and ACOD1 which proteins are related to the binding and tolerance of LPS, and the genes IL-18, IL-18R1 and IL-18RAP which products can form a functional complex and transmit IL-18 pro-inflammatory signal. Additionally, the infection of S. Enteritidis aroused the transcription of EXFABP, which protein has a potential to sequestrate the siderophore and might cause the decline of Escherichia-Shigella and Enterococcus. S. Enteritidis can escape from the sequestrating through the salmochelin, another kind of siderophore which cannot be recognized by EXFABP. Probably by this way, S. Enteritidis competed with the symbiotic bacteria and edged out the niches. Our research can help to understand the interplay between host, pathogen, and symbiotic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geng Hu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
| | - Liying Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
| | - Xiuxiu Miao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
| | - Yanan Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
| | - Yanan Peng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
| | - Lewen Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
| | - Xianyao Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
- *Correspondence: Xianyao Li,
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5
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Moreau T, Gautron J, Hincke MT, Monget P, Réhault-Godbert S, Guyot N. Antimicrobial Proteins and Peptides in Avian Eggshell: Structural Diversity and Potential Roles in Biomineralization. Front Immunol 2022; 13:946428. [PMID: 35967448 PMCID: PMC9363672 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.946428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The calcitic avian eggshell provides physical protection for the embryo during its development, but also regulates water and gaseous exchange, and is a calcium source for bone mineralization. The calcified eggshell has been extensively investigated in the chicken. It is characterized by an inventory of more than 900 matrix proteins. In addition to proteins involved in shell mineralization and regulation of its microstructure, the shell also contains numerous antimicrobial proteins and peptides (AMPPs) including lectin-like proteins, Bacterial Permeability Increasing/Lipopolysaccharide Binding Protein/PLUNC family proteins, defensins, antiproteases, and chelators, which contribute to the innate immune protection of the egg. In parallel, some of these proteins are thought to be crucial determinants of the eggshell texture and its resulting mechanical properties. During the progressive solubilization of the inner mineralized eggshell during embryonic development (to provide calcium to the embryo), some antimicrobials may be released simultaneously to reinforce egg defense and protect the egg from contamination by external pathogens, through a weakened eggshell. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the diversity of avian eggshell AMPPs, their three-dimensional structures and their mechanism of antimicrobial activity. The published chicken eggshell proteome databases are integrated for a comprehensive inventory of its AMPPs. Their biochemical features, potential dual function as antimicrobials and as regulators of eggshell biomineralization, and their phylogenetic evolution will be described and discussed with regard to their three-dimensional structural characteristics. Finally, the repertoire of chicken eggshell AMPPs are compared to orthologs identified in other avian and non-avian eggshells. This approach sheds light on the similarities and differences exhibited by AMPPs, depending on bird species, and leads to a better understanding of their sequential or dual role in biomineralization and innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Moreau
- INRAE, Université de Tours, BOA, Nouzilly, France
- *Correspondence: Nicolas Guyot, ; Thierry Moreau,
| | - Joël Gautron
- INRAE, Université de Tours, BOA, Nouzilly, France
| | - Maxwell T. Hincke
- Department of Innovation in Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Philippe Monget
- INRAE, CNRS, IFCE, Université de Tours, PRC, Nouzilly, France
| | | | - Nicolas Guyot
- INRAE, Université de Tours, BOA, Nouzilly, France
- *Correspondence: Nicolas Guyot, ; Thierry Moreau,
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Guillén S, Cebrián G. Relationship between iron bioavailability and Salmonella Typhimurium fitness in raw and pasteurized liquid whole egg. Food Microbiol 2022; 104:104008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2022.104008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Legros J, Jan S, Bonnassie S, Gautier M, Croguennec T, Pezennec S, Cochet MF, Nau F, Andrews SC, Baron F. The Role of Ovotransferrin in Egg-White Antimicrobial Activity: A Review. Foods 2021; 10:823. [PMID: 33920211 PMCID: PMC8070150 DOI: 10.3390/foods10040823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Eggs are a whole food which affordably support human nutritional requirements worldwide. Eggs strongly resist bacterial infection due to an arsenal of defensive systems, many of which reside in the egg white. However, despite improved control of egg production and distribution, eggs remain a vehicle for foodborne transmission of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, which continues to represent a major public health challenge. It is generally accepted that iron deficiency, mediated by the iron-chelating properties of the egg-white protein ovotransferrin, has a key role in inhibiting infection of eggs by Salmonella. Ovotransferrin has an additional antibacterial activity beyond iron-chelation, which appears to depend on direct interaction with the bacterial cell surface, resulting in membrane perturbation. Current understanding of the antibacterial role of ovotransferrin is limited by a failure to fully consider its activity within the natural context of the egg white, where a series relevant environmental factors (such as alkalinity, high viscosity, ionic composition, and egg white protein interactions) may exert significant influence on ovotransferrin activity. This review provides an overview of what is known and what remains to be determined regarding the antimicrobial activity of ovotransferrin in egg white, and thus enhances understanding of egg safety through improved insight of this key antimicrobial component of eggs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Legros
- STLO, INRAE, Institut Agro, 35042 Rennes, France; (J.L.); (S.J.); (M.G.); (T.C.); (S.P.); (M.-F.C.); (F.N.)
- School of Biological Sciences, Health and Life Sciences Building, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AX, UK;
| | - Sophie Jan
- STLO, INRAE, Institut Agro, 35042 Rennes, France; (J.L.); (S.J.); (M.G.); (T.C.); (S.P.); (M.-F.C.); (F.N.)
| | - Sylvie Bonnassie
- UFR Sciences de la vie et de L’environnement, Université de Rennes 1, 35000 Rennes, France;
| | - Michel Gautier
- STLO, INRAE, Institut Agro, 35042 Rennes, France; (J.L.); (S.J.); (M.G.); (T.C.); (S.P.); (M.-F.C.); (F.N.)
| | - Thomas Croguennec
- STLO, INRAE, Institut Agro, 35042 Rennes, France; (J.L.); (S.J.); (M.G.); (T.C.); (S.P.); (M.-F.C.); (F.N.)
| | - Stéphane Pezennec
- STLO, INRAE, Institut Agro, 35042 Rennes, France; (J.L.); (S.J.); (M.G.); (T.C.); (S.P.); (M.-F.C.); (F.N.)
| | - Marie-Françoise Cochet
- STLO, INRAE, Institut Agro, 35042 Rennes, France; (J.L.); (S.J.); (M.G.); (T.C.); (S.P.); (M.-F.C.); (F.N.)
| | - Françoise Nau
- STLO, INRAE, Institut Agro, 35042 Rennes, France; (J.L.); (S.J.); (M.G.); (T.C.); (S.P.); (M.-F.C.); (F.N.)
| | - Simon C. Andrews
- School of Biological Sciences, Health and Life Sciences Building, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AX, UK;
| | - Florence Baron
- STLO, INRAE, Institut Agro, 35042 Rennes, France; (J.L.); (S.J.); (M.G.); (T.C.); (S.P.); (M.-F.C.); (F.N.)
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Kang MS, Park JH, Kim HJ. Predictive Modeling for the Growth of Salmonella spp. in Liquid Egg White and Application of Scenario-Based Risk Estimation. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9030486. [PMID: 33669000 PMCID: PMC7996612 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9030486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of the study was to develop a predictive model of Salmonella spp. growth in pasteurized liquid egg white (LEW) and to estimate the salmonellosis risk using the baseline model and scenario analysis. Samples were inoculated with six strains of Salmonella, and bacterial growth was observed during storage at 10–37 °C. The primary models were developed using the Baranyi model for LEW. For the secondary models, the obtained specific growth rate (μmax) and lag phase duration were fitted to a square root model and Davey model, respectively, as functions of temperature (R2 ≥ 0.98). For μmax, the values were satisfied within an acceptable range (Af, Bf: 0.70–1.15). The probability of infection (Pinf) due to the consumption of LEW was zero in the baseline model. However, scenario analysis suggested possible salmonellosis for the consumption of LEW. Because Salmonella spp. proliferated much faster in LEW than in egg white (EW) during storage at 20 and 30 °C (p < 0.01), greater Pinf may be obtained for LEW when these products are stored at the same conditions. The developed predictive model can be applied to the risk management of Salmonella spp. along the food chain, including during product storage and distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi Seon Kang
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (M.S.K.); (J.H.P.)
- Department of Food Biotechnology, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, Korea
| | - Jin Hwa Park
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (M.S.K.); (J.H.P.)
| | - Hyun Jung Kim
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (M.S.K.); (J.H.P.)
- Department of Food Biotechnology, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-63-219-9271
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Wellawa DH, Allan B, White AP, Köster W. Iron-Uptake Systems of Chicken-Associated Salmonella Serovars and Their Role in Colonizing the Avian Host. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1203. [PMID: 32784620 PMCID: PMC7465098 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8081203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron is an essential micronutrient for most bacteria. Salmonella enterica strains, representing human and animal pathogens, have adopted several mechanisms to sequester iron from the environment depending on availability and source. Chickens act as a major reservoir for Salmonella enterica strains which can lead to outbreaks of human salmonellosis. In this review article we summarize the current understanding of the contribution of iron-uptake systems to the virulence of non-typhoidal S. enterica strains in colonizing chickens. We aim to address the gap in knowledge in this field, to help understand and define the interactions between S. enterica and these important hosts, in comparison to mammalian models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinesh H. Wellawa
- Vaccine & Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre, University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Rd., Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada; (D.H.W.); (B.A.); (A.P.W.)
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Brenda Allan
- Vaccine & Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre, University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Rd., Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada; (D.H.W.); (B.A.); (A.P.W.)
| | - Aaron P. White
- Vaccine & Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre, University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Rd., Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada; (D.H.W.); (B.A.); (A.P.W.)
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Wolfgang Köster
- Vaccine & Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Centre, University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Rd., Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada; (D.H.W.); (B.A.); (A.P.W.)
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
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