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Huang X, Liu W. Role of microRNAs in host defense against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection: a hidden front line. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1376958. [PMID: 38590524 PMCID: PMC10999632 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1376958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is one of the most globally devastating viruses threatening the swine industry worldwide. Substantial advancements have been achieved in recent years towards comprehending the pathogenesis of PRRSV infection and the host response, involving both innate and adaptive immune responses. Not only a multitude of host proteins actively participate in intricate interactions with viral proteins, but microRNAs (miRNAs) also play a pivotal role in the host response to PRRSV infection. If a PRRSV-host interaction at the protein level is conceptualized as the front line of the battle between pathogens and host cells, then their fight at the RNA level resembles the hidden front line. miRNAs are endogenous small non-coding RNAs of approximately 20-25 nucleotides (nt) that primarily regulate the degradation or translation inhibition of target genes by binding to the 3'-untranslated regions (UTRs). Insights into the roles played by viral proteins and miRNAs in the host response can enhance our comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of PRRSV infection. The intricate interplay between viral proteins and cellular targets during PRRSV infection has been extensively explored. This review predominantly centers on the contemporary understanding of the host response to PRRSV infection at the RNA level, in particular, focusing on the twenty-six miRNAs that affect viral replication and the innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuewei Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
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Chen S, Nai Z, Qin Z, Li G, He X, Wang W, Tian Y, Liu D, Jiang X. The extracellular polysaccharide inhibit porcine epidemic diarrhea virus with extract and gene editing Lacticaseibacillus. Microb Cell Fact 2023; 22:225. [PMID: 37924089 PMCID: PMC10625274 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-023-02226-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Lacticaseibacillus is one of the predominant microorganisms in gut from human and animal, and the lacticaseibacillus have effective applications against the viral diarrhea of piglets in the farm. However, the function and the concrete cell single pathways of the active ingredient from lacticaseibacillus was not clear within anti-infection in the postbiotics research. Here, we compared the biological function of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) purified from lacticaseibacillus casei (L. casei) and gene editing lacticaseibacillus casei with the CRISPER-Cas9 technology, which were with the ability of antioxidation and anti-inflammation, and the EPS could also inhibit the ROS production within the Porcine Small Intestinal Epithelial Cells-J2 (IPEC-J2). Interestingly, we found that both of EPS and genome editing lacticaseibacillus casei could specifically target the IFN-λ expression in the IPEC-J2, which was beneficial against the PEDV infection in the virus replication and production with the qRT-PCR and indirect immunofluorescence methods. Finally, the STAT3 cell single pathway was stimulated to transcribe IFN-λ with the EPS to elucidate the detailed mechanism of activating type III IFN signals receptor of IL-10R2, which play the function between anti-inflammation and anti-virus in the PEDV infection. Taken together, our research linked a postbiotics of EPS with the antiviral infection of PEDV, which suggest that the lacticaseibacillus itself still have displayed the potential immunomodulatory activities, and highlight the immunomodulatory potential of EPS-producing microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojun Chen
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Zida Nai
- Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziliang Qin
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Gang Li
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinmiao He
- Key Laboratory of Combining Farming and Animal Husbandry, Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry Research Institute, Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences No, 368 Xuefu Road, Harbin, 150086, People's Republic of China
| | - Wentao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Combining Farming and Animal Husbandry, Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry Research Institute, Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences No, 368 Xuefu Road, Harbin, 150086, People's Republic of China
| | - Yaguang Tian
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
- Undergraduate Experimental and Teaching Center, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Di Liu
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Combining Farming and Animal Husbandry, Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry Research Institute, Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences No, 368 Xuefu Road, Harbin, 150086, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xinpeng Jiang
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China.
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Zhang X, Xia H, Wang Q, Cui M, Zhang C, Wang Q, Liu X, Chen K. SOCSs: important regulators of host cell susceptibility or resistance to viral infection. Z NATURFORSCH C 2023; 78:327-335. [PMID: 37233326 DOI: 10.1515/znc-2023-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCSs) are implicated in viral infection and host antiviral innate immune response. Recent studies demonstrate that viruses can hijack SOCSs to inhibit Janus kinase-signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK-STAT) pathway, block the production and signaling of interferons (IFNs). At the same time, viruses can hijack SOCS to regulate non-IFN factors to evade antiviral response. Host cells can also regulate SOCSs to resist viral infection. The competition of the control of SOCSs may largely determine the fate of viral infection and the susceptibility or resistance of host cells, which is of significance for development of novel antiviral therapies targeting SOCSs. Accumulating evidence reveal that the regulation and function of SOCSs by viruses and host cells are very complicated, which is determined by characteristics of both viruses and host cell types. This report presents a systematic review to evaluate the roles of SOCSs in viral infection and host antiviral responses. One of messages worth attention is that all eight SOCS members should be investigated to accurately characterize their roles and relative contribution in each viral infection, which may help identify the most effective SOCS to be used in "individualized" antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhang
- Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China
| | - Hengchuan Xia
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, 212013, China
| | - Qian Wang
- Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Miao Cui
- Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Cong Zhang
- Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qiang Wang
- Institute of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, 212013, China
| | | | - Keping Chen
- Institute of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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Serrat J, Francés-Gómez C, Becerro-Recio D, González-Miguel J, Geller R, Siles-Lucas M. Antigens from the Helminth Fasciola hepatica Exert Antiviral Effects against SARS-CoV-2 In Vitro. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11597. [PMID: 37511355 PMCID: PMC10380311 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2, the causal agent of COVID-19, is a new coronavirus that has rapidly spread worldwide and significantly impacted human health by causing a severe acute respiratory syndrome boosted by a pulmonary hyperinflammatory response. Previous data from our lab showed that the newly excysted juveniles of the helminth parasite Fasciola hepatica (FhNEJ) modulate molecular routes within host cells related to vesicle-mediated transport and components of the innate immune response, which could potentially be relevant during viral infections. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine whether FhNEJ-derived molecules influence SARS-CoV-2 infection efficiency in Vero cells. Pre-treatment of Vero cells with a tegument-enriched antigenic extract of FhNEJ (FhNEJ-TEG) significantly reduced infection by both vesicular stomatitis virus particles pseudotyped with the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein (VSV-S2) and live SARS-CoV-2. Pre-treatment of the virus itself with FhNEJ-TEG prior to infection also resulted in reduced infection efficiency similar to that obtained by remdesivir pre-treatment. Remarkably, treatment of Vero cells with FhNEJ-TEG after VSV-S2 entry also resulted in reduced infection efficiency, suggesting that FhNEJ-TEG may also affect post-entry steps of the VSV replication cycle. Altogether, our results could potentially encourage the production of FhNEJ-derived molecules in a safe, synthetic format for their application as therapeutic agents against SARS-CoV-2 and other related respiratory viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judit Serrat
- Laboratory of Helminth Parasites of Zoonotic Importance (ATENEA), Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC), C/Cordel de Merinas 40-52, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Clara Francés-Gómez
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology (I2SysBio), Universidad de Valencia-CSIC, 46980 Valencia, Spain
| | - David Becerro-Recio
- Laboratory of Helminth Parasites of Zoonotic Importance (ATENEA), Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC), C/Cordel de Merinas 40-52, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Javier González-Miguel
- Laboratory of Helminth Parasites of Zoonotic Importance (ATENEA), Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC), C/Cordel de Merinas 40-52, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Ron Geller
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology (I2SysBio), Universidad de Valencia-CSIC, 46980 Valencia, Spain
| | - Mar Siles-Lucas
- Laboratory of Helminth Parasites of Zoonotic Importance (ATENEA), Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC), C/Cordel de Merinas 40-52, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
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Xu J, Gao Q, Zhang W, Zheng J, Chen R, Han X, Mao J, Shan Y, Shi F, He F, Fang W, Li X. Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus Antagonizes Host IFN-λ-Mediated Responses by Tilting Transcription Factor STAT1 toward Acetylation over Phosphorylation To Block Its Activation. mBio 2023:e0340822. [PMID: 37052505 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03408-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is the main etiologic agent causing acute swine epidemic diarrhea, leading to severe economic losses to the pig industry. PEDV has evolved to deploy complicated antagonistic strategies to escape from host antiviral innate immunity. Our previous study demonstrated that PEDV downregulates histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) expression by binding viral nucleocapsid (N) protein to the transcription factor Sp1, inducing enhanced protein acetylation. We hypothesized that PEDV inhibition of HDAC1 expression would enhance acetylation of the molecules critical in innate immune signaling. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) is a crucial transcription factor regulating expression of interferon (IFN)-stimulated genes (ISGs) and anti-PEDV immune responses, as shown by overexpression, chemical inhibition, and gene knockdown in IPEC-J2 cells. We further show that PEDV infection and its N protein overexpression, although they upregulated STAT1 transcription level, could significantly block poly(I·C) and IFN-λ3-induced STAT1 phosphorylation and nuclear localization. Western blotting revealed that PEDV and its N protein promote STAT1 acetylation via downregulation of HDAC1. Enhanced STAT1 acetylation due to HDAC1 inhibition by PEDV or MS-275 (an HDAC1 inhibitor) impaired STAT1 phosphorylation, indicating that STAT1 acetylation negatively regulated its activation. These results, together with our recent report on PEDV N-mediated inhibition of Sp1, clearly indicate that PEDV manipulates the Sp1-HDAC1-STAT1 signaling axis to inhibit transcription of OAS1 and ISG15 in favor of its replication. This novel immune evasion mechanism is realized by suppression of STAT1 activation through preferential modulation of STAT1 acetylation over phosphorylation as a result of HDAC1 expression inhibition. IMPORTANCE PEDV has developed sophisticated evasion mechanisms to escape host IFN signaling via its structural and nonstructural proteins. STAT1 is one of the key transcription factors in regulating expression of ISGs. We found that PEDV and its N protein inhibit STAT1 phosphorylation and nuclear localization via inducing STAT1 acetylation as a result of HDAC1 downregulation, which, in turn, dampens the host IFN signaling activation. Our study demonstrates a novel mechanism that PEDV evades host antiviral innate immunity through manipulating the reciprocal relationship of STAT1 acetylation and phosphorylation. This provides new insights into the pathogenetic mechanisms of PEDV and even other coronaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jidong Xu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Veterinary Medicine, MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qin Gao
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Weiwu Zhang
- Hangzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jingyou Zheng
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Rong Chen
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiao Han
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Junyong Mao
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Yongyou Industry Park, Yazhou Bay Sci-Tech City, Sanya, China
| | - Ying Shan
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Veterinary Medicine, MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Fushan Shi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Veterinary Medicine, MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Fang He
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Veterinary Medicine, MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Weihuan Fang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Veterinary Medicine, MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaoliang Li
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Veterinary Medicine, MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Yongyou Industry Park, Yazhou Bay Sci-Tech City, Sanya, China
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Guo X, Zhang Z, Lin C, Ren H, Li Y, Zhang Y, Qu Y, Li H, Ma S, Xia H, Sun R, Zu H, Lin Y, Wang X. A/(H1N1) pdm09 NS1 promotes viral replication by enhancing autophagy through hijacking the IAV negative regulatory factor LRPPRC. Autophagy 2022:1-18. [DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2022.2139922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Xing Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, P. R. China
- Panjin Center of Inspection and Testing, Panjin, P. R. China
| | - Zhenyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Chaohui Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Huiling Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Yijing Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Yuxing Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Hongxin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Saiwen Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Huijuan Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Rongkuan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Haoyu Zu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Yuezhi Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
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Shi X, Zhang Q, Wang J, Zhang Y, Yan Y, Liu Y, Yang N, Wang Q, Xu X. Differential expression analysis of mRNAs, lncRNAs, and miRNAs expression profiles and construction of ceRNA networks in PEDV infection. BMC Genomics 2022; 23:586. [PMID: 35964002 PMCID: PMC9375197 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-022-08805-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus (PEDV) is a coronavirus that seriously affects the swine industry. MicroRNAs and long noncoding RNAs are two relevant non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) class and play crucial roles in a variety of physiological processes. Increased evidence indicates a complex interaction between mRNA and ncRNA. However, our understanding of the function of ncRNA involved in host-PEDV interaction is limited. RESULTS A total of 1,197 mRNA transcripts, 539 lncRNA transcripts, and 208 miRNA transcripts were differentially regulated at 24 h and 48 h post-infection. Gene ontology (GO) and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis showed that DE mRNAs and DE lncRNAs were mainly involved in biosynthesis, innate immunity, and lipid metabolism. Moreover, we constructed a miRNA-mRNA-pathway network using bioinformatics, including 12 DE mRNAs, 120 DE miRNAs, and 11 pathways. Finally, the target genes of DE miRNAs were screened by bioinformatics, and we constructed immune-related lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA ceRNA networks. Then, the selected DE genes were validated by qRT-PCR, which were consistent with the results from RNA-Seq data. CONCLUSIONS This study provides the comprehensive analysis of the expression profiles of mRNAs, lncRNAs, and miRNAs during PEDV infection. We characterize the ceRNA networks which can provide new insights into the pathogenesis of PEDV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojie Shi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qi Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jingjing Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yuting Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yuchao Yan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yi Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Naling Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Quanqiong Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xingang Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Xianyang, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
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Wang H, Bi Z, Dai K, Li P, Huang R, Wu S, Bao W. A Functional Variant in the Aquaporin-3 Promoter Modulates Its Expression and Correlates With Resistance to Porcine Epidemic Virus Infection in Porcine Intestinal Epithelial Cells. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:877644. [PMID: 35770166 PMCID: PMC9234456 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.877644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) causes a highly contagious intestinal disease in neonatal pigs. Aquaporin-3 (AQP3) plays important roles in maintenance of intestinal barrier function and regulation of immune responses. However, the roles of AQP3 in mediating PEDV infection to host cells and the regulatory mechanisms of AQP3 expression remain poorly understood. Here, we identified one 16 bp (GGGCGGGGTTGCGGGC) insertion mutation in the AQP3 gene promoter in Large White pigs, with the frequencies of 49.3% of heterozygotes and 31.3% of mutant homozygotes. Functional analysis by luciferase activity assay indicated that the insertion mutation results in significant enhancement in AQP3 transcriptional activity (P < 0.01). Mechanistic analysis showed that the inserted sequence adds binding sites for transcription factor CEBPA, which promotes the expression of AQP3. Downregulation of AQP3 by shRNA silencing in porcine intestinal epithelial cells revealed obvious increases in genome copies and viral titers of PEDV. Expression of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, and IL-18) and interferons (IFN-α and IFN-β) were significantly reduced (P < 0.01) in AQP3 knockdown cells upon PEDV infection. Furthermore, decreased level of ZO-1 protein was also detected in AQP3 knockdown cells in response to PEDV infection. Our findings suggested a previously unknown mechanism linking the effects of promoter genetic variants on the expression of AQP3, revealed the roles of AQP3 in response to PEDV pathogenesis, and indicated the potential associations of the 16 bp insertion mutation with resistance to PEDV infection in porcine intestinal epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifei Wang
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetics, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Zhenbin Bi
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetics, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Kaiyu Dai
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetics, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Pinghua Li
- Institute of Swine Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ruihua Huang
- Institute of Swine Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shenglong Wu
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetics, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Shenglong Wu,
| | - Wenbin Bao
- Key Laboratory for Animal Genetics, Breeding, Reproduction and Molecular Design, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, The Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Wenbin Bao,
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Ghafouri-Fard S, Poornajaf Y, Dashti F, Hussen BM, Taheri M, Jamali E. Interaction Between Non-Coding RNAs and Interferons: With an Especial Focus on Type I Interferons. Front Immunol 2022; 13:877243. [PMID: 35572537 PMCID: PMC9091820 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.877243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferons (IFNs) are a group of cellular proteins with critical roles in the regulation of immune responses in the course of microbial infections. Moreover, expressions of IFNs are dysregulated in autoimmune disorders. IFNs are also a part of immune responses in malignant conditions. The expression of these proteins and activities of related signaling can be influenced by a number of non-coding RNAs. IFN regulatory factors (IRFs) are the most investigated molecules in the field of effects of non-coding RNAs on IFN signaling. These interactions have been best assessed in the context of cancer, revealing the importance of immune function in the pathoetiology of cancer. In addition, IFN-related non-coding RNAs may contribute to the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric conditions, systemic sclerosis, Newcastle disease, Sjögren’s syndrome, traumatic brain injury, lupus nephritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, diabetes mellitus, and myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. In the current review, we describe the role of microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs in the regulation of IFN signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soudeh Ghafouri-Fard
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Yadollah Poornajaf
- Faculty of Medicine, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran
| | - Farzaneh Dashti
- Faculty of Medicine, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran
| | - Bashdar Mahmud Hussen
- Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Hawler Medical University, Erbil, Iraq.,Center of Research and Strategic Studies, Lebanese French University, Erbil, Iraq
| | - Mohammad Taheri
- Urology and Nephrology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Institute of Human Genetics, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Elena Jamali
- Skull Base Research Center, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Pathology, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Li C, Wang R, Wu A, Yuan T, Song K, Bai Y, Liu X. SARS-COV-2 as potential microRNA sponge in COVID-19 patients. BMC Med Genomics 2022; 15:94. [PMID: 35461273 PMCID: PMC9034446 DOI: 10.1186/s12920-022-01243-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNA that can downregulate their targets by selectively binding to the 3′ untranslated region (3′UTR) of most messenger RNAs (mRNAs) in the human genome. MiRNAs can interact with other molecules such as viruses and act as a mediator for viral infection. In this study, we examined whether, and to what extent, the SARS-CoV-2 virus can serve as a “sponge” for human miRNAs. Results We identified multiple potential miRNA/target pairs that may be disrupted during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Using miRNA expression profiles and RNA-seq from published studies, we further identified a highly confident list of 5 miRNA/target pairs that could be disrupted by the virus’s miRNA sponge effect, namely hsa-miR-374a-5p/APOL6, hsa-let-7f-1-3p/EIF4A2, hsa-miR-374a-3p/PARP11, hsa-miR-548d-3p/PSMA2 and hsa-miR-23b-3p/ZNFX1 pairs. Using single-cell RNA-sequencing based data, we identified two important miRNAs, hsa-miR-302c-5p and hsa-miR-16-5p, to be potential virus targeting miRNAs across multiple cell types from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples. We further validated some of our findings using miRNA and gene enrichment analyses and the results confirmed with findings from previous studies that some of these identified miRNA/target pairs are involved in ACE2 receptor network, regulating pro-inflammatory cytokines and in immune cell maturation and differentiation. Conclusion Using publicly available databases and patient-related expression data, we found that acting as a “miRNA sponge” could be one explanation for SARS-CoV-2-mediated pathophysiological changes. This study provides a novel way of utilizing SARS-CoV-2 related data, with bioinformatics approaches, to help us better understand the etiology of the disease and its differential manifestation across individuals. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12920-022-01243-7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Li
- USF Genomics and College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
| | | | | | - Tina Yuan
- The Roeper School, Birmingham, MI, USA
| | | | - Yongsheng Bai
- Next-Gen Intelligent Science Training, Ann Arbor, MI, USA. .,Department of Biology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI, 48197, USA.
| | - Xiaoming Liu
- USF Genomics and College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
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11
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Coronavirus Porcine Deltacoronavirus Upregulates MHC Class I Expression through RIG-I/IRF1-Mediated NLRC5 Induction. J Virol 2022; 96:e0015822. [PMID: 35311551 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00158-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) and MHC-II molecules, mainly being responsible for the processing and presentation of intracellular or extracellular antigen, respectively, are critical for antiviral immunity. Here, we reported that porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) with the zoonotic potential and potential spillover from pigs to humans, upregulated the expressions of porcine MHC-I (swine leukocyte antigen class I, SLA-I) molecules and SLA-I antigen presentation associated genes instead of porcine MHC-II (SLA-II) molecules both in primary porcine enteroids and swine testicular (ST) cells at the late stage of infection, and this finding was verified in vivo. Moreover, the induction of SLA-I molecules by PDCoV infection was mediated through enhancing the expression of NOD-like receptor (NLR) family caspase recruitment domain-containing 5 (NLRC5). Mechanistic studies demonstrated that PDCoV infection robustly elevated retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) expression, and further initiated the downstream type I interferon beta (IFN-β) production, which led to the upregulation of NLRC5 and SLA-I genes. Likewise, interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF1) elicited by PDCoV infection directly activated the promoter activity of NLRC5, resulting in an increased expression of NLRC5 and SLA-I upregulation. Taken together, our findings advance our understanding of how PDCoV manipulates MHC molecules, and knowledge that could help inform the development of therapies and vaccines against PDCoV. IMPORTANCE MHC-I molecules play a crucial role in antiviral immunity by presenting intracellular antigens to CD8+T lymphocytes and eliminating virus-infected cells by natural killer cells' "missing-self recognition." However, the manipulation of MHC molecules by coronaviruses remains poorly understood. Here, we demonstrated that PDCoV, a zoonotic potential coronavirus efficiently infecting cells from broad species, greatly increased the expressions of porcine MHC-I (SLA-I) molecules and MHC-I antigen presentation associated genes but not porcine MHC-II (SLA-II) molecules both in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, the upregulation of MHC-I molecules by PDCoV infection required the master transactivator of MHC-I, NLRC5, which was mediated not only by RIG-I-initiated type I IFN signaling pathway but also by IRF1 induced by PDCoV as it could activate NLRC5 promoter activity. These results provide significant insights into the modification of the MHC class I pathway and may provide a potential therapeutic intervention for PDCoV.
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12
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He Z, Tian M, Fu X. Reduced expression of miR-30c-5p promotes hepatocellular carcinoma progression by targeting RAB32. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2021; 26:603-612. [PMID: 34703646 PMCID: PMC8517094 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2021.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains among the most lethal of human cancers, despite recent advances in modern medicine. miR-30c-5p is frequently dysregulated in different diseases. However, the effects and the underlying mechanism of miR-30c-5p in HCC are still elusive. Here, we show that miR-30c-5p is downregulated in HCC and significantly associated with survival and tumor size in patients with HCC. We demonstrate that aberrant miR-30c-5p markedly affects HCC cell proliferation and migration. Further experiments show that RAB32 is an essential target of miR-30c-5p in HCC. These studies highlight an important role of miR-30c-5p in growth and invasion of HCC and indicate that the miR-30c-5p-RAB32 axis is an important underlying mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng He
- Department of General Surgery, Shiyan People's Hospital of Bao'an District, No. 11 Jixiang Road, Bao'an District, Shenzhen, 518108 Guangdong, China
| | - Meng Tian
- Department of General Surgery, Shiyan People's Hospital of Bao'an District, No. 11 Jixiang Road, Bao'an District, Shenzhen, 518108 Guangdong, China
| | - Xuan Fu
- Department of General Surgery, Shiyan People's Hospital of Bao'an District, No. 11 Jixiang Road, Bao'an District, Shenzhen, 518108 Guangdong, China
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13
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Wang R, Yang X, Chang M, Xue Z, Wang W, Bai L, Zhao S, Liu E. ORF3a Protein of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Inhibits Interferon-Activated Janus Kinase/Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription Signaling via Elevating Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling 1. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:752597. [PMID: 34650546 PMCID: PMC8506155 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.752597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a crisis to global public health since its outbreak at the end of 2019. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the pathogen of COVID-19, appears to efficiently evade the host immune responses, including interferon (IFN) signaling. Several SARS-CoV-2 viral proteins are believed to involve in the inhibition of IFN signaling. In this study, we discovered that ORF3a, an accessory protein of SARS-CoV-2, inhibited IFN-activated Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signaling via upregulating suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1), a negative regulator of cytokine signaling. ORF3a induced SOCS1 elevation in a dose- and time-dependent manner. RNAi-mediated silencing of SOCS1 efficiently abolished ORF3a-induced blockage of JAK/STAT signaling. Interestingly, we found that ORF3a also promoted the ubiquitin-proteasomal degradation of Janus kinase 2 (JAK2), an important kinase in IFN signaling. Silencing of SOCS1 by siRNA distinctly blocked ORF3a-induced JAK2 ubiquitination and degradation. These results demonstrate that ORF3a dampens IFN signaling via upregulating SOCS1, which suppressed STAT1 phosphorylation and accelerated JAK2 ubiquitin-proteasomal degradation. Furthermore, analysis of ORF3a deletion constructs showed that the middle domain of ORF3a (amino acids 70-130) was responsible for SOCS1 upregulation. These findings contribute to our understanding of the mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 antagonizing host antiviral response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Wang
- Laboratory Animal Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Enqi Liu
- Laboratory Animal Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
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14
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Siniscalchi C, Di Palo A, Russo A, Potenza N. Human MicroRNAs Interacting With SARS-CoV-2 RNA Sequences: Computational Analysis and Experimental Target Validation. Front Genet 2021; 12:678994. [PMID: 34163530 PMCID: PMC8215607 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.678994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel RNA virus affecting humans, causing a form of acute pulmonary respiratory disorder named COVID-19, declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization. MicroRNAs (miRNA) play an emerging and important role in the interplay between viruses and host cells. Although the impact of host miRNAs on SARS-CoV-2 infection has been predicted, experimental data are still missing. This study started by a bioinformatics prediction of cellular miRNAs potentially targeting viral RNAs; then, a number of criteria also based on experimental evidence and virus biology were applied, giving rise to eight promising binding miRNAs. Their interaction with viral sequences was experimentally validated by transfecting luciferase-based reporter plasmids carrying viral target sequences or their inverted sequences into the lung A549 cell line. Transfection of the reporter plasmids resulted in a reduction of luciferase activity for five out of the eight potential binding sites, suggesting responsiveness to endogenously expressed miRNAs. Co-transfection of the reporter plasmids along with miRNA mimics led to a further and strong reduction of luciferase activity, validating the interaction between miR-219a-2-3p, miR-30c-5p, miR-378d, miR-29a-3p, miR-15b-5p, and viral sequences. miR-15b was also able to repress plasmid-driven Spike expression. Intriguingly, the viral target sequences are fully conserved in more recent variants such as United Kingdom variant B.1.1.7 and South Africa 501Y.V2. Overall, this study provides a first experimental evidence of the interaction between specific cellular miRNAs and SARS-CoV-2 sequences, thus contributing to understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying virus infection and pathogenesis to envisage innovative therapeutic interventions and diagnostic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Siniscalchi
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Caserta, Italy
| | - Armando Di Palo
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Caserta, Italy
| | - Aniello Russo
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Caserta, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Potenza
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Caserta, Italy
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15
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Nemudryi A, Nemudraia A, Wiegand T, Nichols J, Snyder DT, Hedges JF, Cicha C, Lee H, Vanderwood KK, Bimczok D, Jutila MA, Wiedenheft B. SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance identifies naturally occurring truncation of ORF7a that limits immune suppression. Cell Rep 2021; 35:109197. [PMID: 34043946 PMCID: PMC8118641 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Over 950,000 whole-genome sequences of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been determined for viruses isolated from around the world. These sequences are critical for understanding the spread and evolution of SARS-CoV-2. Using global phylogenomics, we show that mutations frequently occur in the C-terminal end of ORF7a. We isolate one of these mutant viruses from a patient sample and use viral challenge experiments to link this isolate (ORF7aΔ115) to a growth defect. ORF7a is implicated in immune modulation, and we show that the C-terminal truncation negates anti-immune activities of the protein, which results in elevated type I interferon response to the viral infection. Collectively, this work indicates that ORF7a mutations occur frequently, and that these changes affect viral mechanisms responsible for suppressing the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artem Nemudryi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Anna Nemudraia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Tanner Wiegand
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Joseph Nichols
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Deann T Snyder
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Jodi F Hedges
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Calvin Cicha
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Helen Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | | | - Diane Bimczok
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Mark A Jutila
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Blake Wiedenheft
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
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16
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Nemudryi A, Nemudraia A, Wiegand T, Nichols J, Snyder DT, Hedges JF, Cicha C, Lee H, Vanderwood KK, Bimczok D, Jutila M, Wiedenheft B. SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance identifies naturally occurring truncations of ORF7a that limit immune suppression. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2021:2021.02.22.21252253. [PMID: 33655280 PMCID: PMC7924305 DOI: 10.1101/2021.02.22.21252253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Over 200,000 whole genome sequences of SARS-CoV-2 have been determined for viruses isolated from around the world. These sequences have been critical for understanding the spread and evolution of SARS-CoV-2. Using global phylogenomics, we show that mutations frequently occur in the C-terminal end of ORF7a. We have isolated one of these mutant viruses from a patient sample and used viral challenge experiments to demonstrate that Δ115 mutation results in a growth defect. ORF7a has been implicated in immune modulation, and we show that the C-terminal truncation results in distinct changes in interferon stimulated gene expression. Collectively, this work indicates that ORF7a mutations occur frequently and that these changes affect viral mechanisms responsible for suppressing the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artem Nemudryi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
- Twitter: @artemnemudryi
- Lead contact
| | - Anna Nemudraia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Tanner Wiegand
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Joseph Nichols
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Deann T Snyder
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Jodi F Hedges
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Calvin Cicha
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Helen Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | | | - Diane Bimczok
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Mark Jutila
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Blake Wiedenheft
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
- Twitter: @WiedenheftLab
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