Microbial Life in the Deep Subsurface Aquifer Illuminated by Metagenomics

Candidatus Desulforudis audaxviator dominates a 975 m deep groundwater community in central Sweden

The continental bedrock contains groundwater-bearing fractures that are home to microbial populations that are vital in mediating the Earth's biogeochemical cycles. However, their diversity is poorly understood due to the difficulty of obtaining samples from this environment. Here, a groundwater-bearing fracture at 975 m depth was isolated by employing packers in order to characterize the microbial community via metagenomes combined with prokaryotic and eukaryotic marker genes (16S and 18S ribosomal RNA gene). Genome-resolved analyses revealed a community dominated by sulfate-reducing Bacillota, predominantly represented by Candidatus Desulforudis audaxviator and with Wood-Ljungdahl as the most prevalent pathway for inorganic carbon fixation. Moreover, the eukaryotic community had a considerable diversity and was comprised of mainly flatworms, chlorophytes, crustaceans, ochrophytes, and fungi. These findings support the important role of the Bacillota, with the sulfate reducer Candidatus Desulforudis audaxviator as its main representative, as primary producers in the often energy-limited groundwaters of the continental subsurface.

Novel thermophilic genera Geochorda gen. nov. and Carboxydochorda gen. nov. from the deep terrestrial subsurface reveal the ecophysiological diversity in the class Limnochordia

The class Limnochordia harbors a single cultivated member, the mesophilic Limnochorda pilosa, which was isolated from a meromictic lake. Despite numerous molecular signatures reported in various ecosystems, the ecophysiological versatility of this deeply branched lineage of Firmicutes (Bacillota) remains poorly understood. The objective of this study was to use targeted cultivation, based on metagenome-assembled genomes from a deep terrestrial aquifer in Western Siberia, to isolate two new thermophilic members of the class. These isolates, described as Geochorda subterranea gen. nov. sp. nov. and Carboxydochorda subterranea gen. nov. sp. nov. within the Geochordaceae fam. nov., were capable of both anaerobic and aerobic respiration using fumarate and O2, respectively, with simple sugars as electron donors. The cultivated Geochordaceae have demonstrated fermentative growth and degradation of various polymers, including starch, maltose, maltodextrin, xylan, and chitin. The carboxydotrophic C. subterranea sp. nov. exhibited autotrophic growth via the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle, using CO, H2, and formate as electron donors and O2 as an electron acceptor, adding metabolic flexibility to the bacterium in the nutrient-depleted "deep biosphere" and supporting the possibility of aerobic metabolism in the deep subsurface. The broad physiological potential deciphered from physiological experiments and comparative genomic data explains the widespread distribution of uncultivated members of the class Limnochordia in various ecosystems, where they can oxidize complex organic substrates through both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, as well as pursue a chemolithotrophic lifestyle through the oxidation of H2 or CO.

Strategy to mitigate substrate inhibition in wastewater treatment systems

Global urbanization requires more stable and sustainable wastewater treatment to reduce the burden on the water environment. To address the problem of substrate inhibition of microorganisms during wastewater treatment, which leads to unstable wastewater discharge, this study proposes an approach to enhance the tolerance of bacterial community by artificially setting up a non-lethal high substrate environment. And the feasibility of this approach was explored by taking the inhibition of anammox process by nitrite as an example. It was shown that the non-lethal high substrate environment could enhance the nitrite tolerance of anammox bacterial community, as the specific anammox activity increasing up to 24.71 times at high nitrite concentrations. Moreover, the system composed of anammox bacterial community with high nitrite tolerance also showed greater resistance (two-fold) in response to nitrite shock. The antifragility of the system was enhanced without affecting the operation of the main reactor, and the non-lethal high nitrite environment changed the dominant anammox genera to Candidatus Jettenia. This approach to enhance tolerance of bacterial community in a non-lethal high substrate environment not only allows the anammox system to operate stably, but also promises to be a potential strategy for achieving stable biological wastewater treatment processes to comply with standards.

Rosettibacter primus gen. nov., sp. nov., and Rosettibacter firmus sp. nov., facultatively anaerobic moderately thermophilic bacteria of the class Ignavibacteria from hot springs of North Ossetia

A novel facultatively anaerobic moderately thermophilic bacteria, strains 4137-MeT and 4148-MeT, were isolated from hot springs of Karmadon and Ursdon, respectively (North Ossetia, Russian Federation). Gram-negative, motile rods were present singly, in pairs, rosettes, and aggregates, or formed biofilms. Both strains grew optimally at 50-55 °C, pH 7.0 and did not require sodium chloride or yeast extract for growth. They were chemoorganoheterotrophs, growing on mono-, di- and polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, xylan, lichenan, galactan, xyloglucan, mannan, xanthan gum, guar gum) as well as proteinaceous substrates (gelatin, peptone, beef and yeast extract). Growth under anaerobic conditions was observed in presence and absence of external electron acceptors. Sulfur, thiosulfate, arsenate, Fe-citrate, and ferrihydrite were reduced with acetate, starch, or yeast extract as electron donors. The respiratory quinone was MK-7. Major cellular fatty acids of both strains were iso-C15:0, anteiso-C17:0, C15:0, iso-C16:0 and additionally iso-C17:0 for strain 4137-MeT. The size of the genome and genomic DNA G + C content of strain 4137-MeT were 3.24 Mb. and 29.9 %, respectively; for strain 4148-MeT - 3.33 Mb and 30.7 %. According to the 16S rRNA gene sequence and conserved protein sequences phylogenies, strains 4137-MeT and 4148-MeT represented a distinct lineage of the family Melioribacteraceae within the class Ignavibacteria. Based on phylogenetic analysis and phenotypic features, the novel isolates were assigned to a novel genus, for which the name Rosettibacter gen. nov. is proposed. Strain 4148-MeT represents its type species Rosettibacter primus sp. nov., while strain 4137-MeT represents a new species Rosettibacter firmus sp. nov.

Assessment of the in situ biomethanation potential of a deep aquifer used for natural gas storage

The dihydrogen (H2) sector is undergoing development and will require massive storage solutions. To minimize costs, the conversion of underground geological storage sites, such as deep aquifers, used for natural gas storage into future underground hydrogen storage sites is the favored scenario. However, these sites contain microorganisms capable of consuming H2, mainly sulfate reducers and methanogens. Methanogenesis is, therefore expected but its intensity must be evaluated. Here, in a deep aquifer used for underground geological storage, 17 sites were sampled, with low sulfate concentrations ranging from 21.9 to 197.8 µM and a slow renewal of formation water. H2-selected communities mainly were composed of the families Methanobacteriaceae and Methanothermobacteriaceae and the genera Desulfovibrio, Thermodesulfovibrio, and Desulforamulus. Experiments were done under different conditions, and sulfate reduction, as well as methanogenesis, were demonstrated in the presence of a H2 or H2/CO2 (80/20) gas phase, with or without calcite/site rock. These metabolisms led to an increase in pH up to 10.2 under certain conditions (without CO2). The results suggest competition for CO2 between lithoautotrophs and carbonate mineral precipitation, which could limit microbial H2 consumption.

Metagenomics of two aquifers with thermal anomalies in Mallorca Island, and proposal of new uncultivated taxa named following the rules of SeqCode

Groundwater offers an intriguing blend of distinctive physical and chemical conditions, constituting a challenge for microbial life. In Mallorca, the largest island of Balearic archipelago, harbours a variety of thermal anomalies (i.e., geothermal manifestation where surface aquifers exhibiting temperatures exceeding the regional average). The metagenomes of two aquifers in the centre and southern of the island showed Pseudomonadota to be the most represented phylum when using extracted 16S rRNA gene sequences. However, the microbial structures within and between aquifers were remarkably diverse but similar in their metabolic profiles as revealed by the metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) pointing to a prevalence of aerobic chemolithoautotrophic and heterotrophic metabolisms, especially in the Llucmajor aquifer. Also, some evidences of anaerobic lifestyles were detected, which would indicate that these environments either could suffer episodes of oxygen depletion or the anaerobes had been transported from deeper waters. We believe that the local environmental factors (temperature, external inputs or chemistry) seem to be more relevant than the connection and, eventually, transport of microbial cells within the aquifer in determining the highly divergent structures. Notably, most of the reconstructed genomes belonged to undescribed bacterial lineages and from them two high-quality MAGs could be classified as novel taxa named following the rules of the Code for Nomenclature of Prokaryotes Described from Sequence Data (SeqCode). Accordingly, we propose the new species and genus Costitxia debesea gen. nov., sp. nov., affiliated with the novel family Costitxiaceae fam. nov., order Costitxiales ord. nov. and class Costitxiia class. nov.; and the new new species and genus Lloretia debesea gen. nov. sp. nov. affiliated with the novel family Lloretiaceae fam. nov.

Biotic and abiotic factors acting on community assembly in parallel anaerobic digestion systems from a brewery wastewater treatment plant

Anaerobic digestion is a complex microbial process that mediates the transformation of organic waste into biogas. The performance and stability of anaerobic digesters relies on the structure and function of the microbial community. In this study, we asked whether the deterministic effect of wastewater composition outweighs the effect of reactor configuration on the structure and dynamics of anaerobic digester archaeal and bacterial communities. Biotic and abiotic factors acting on microbial community assembly in two parallel anaerobic digestion systems, an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestor (UASB) and a closed digester tank with a solid recycling system (CDSR), from a brewery WWTP were analysed utilizing 16S rDNA and mcrA amplicon sequencing and genome-centric metagenomics. This study confirmed the deterministic effect of the wastewater composition on bacterial community structure, while the archaeal community composition resulted better explained by organic loading rate (ORL) and volatile free acids (VFA). According to the functions assigned to the differentially abundant metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) between reactors, CDSR was enriched in genes related to methanol and methylamines methanogenesis, protein degradation, and sulphate and alcohol utilization. Conversely, the UASB reactor was enriched in genes associated with carbohydrate and lipid degradation, as well as amino acid, fatty acid, and propionate fermentation. By comparing interactions derived from the co-occurrence network with predicted metabolic interactions of the prokaryotic communities in both anaerobic digesters, we conclude that the overall community structure is mainly determined by habitat filtering.

Hydrogeological controls on microbial activity and habitability in the Precambrian continental crust

Earth's deep continental subsurface is a prime setting to study the limits of life's relationship with environmental conditions and habitability. In Precambrian crystalline rocks worldwide, deep ancient groundwaters in fracture networks are typically oligotrophic, highly saline, and locally inhabited by low-biomass communities in which chemolithotrophic microorganisms may dominate. Periodic opening of new fractures can lead to penetration of surface water and/or migration of fracture fluids, both of which may trigger changes in subsurface microbial composition and activity. These hydrogeological processes and their impacts on subsurface communities may play a significant role in global cycles of key elements in the crust. However, to date, considerable uncertainty remains on how subsurface microbial communities may respond to these changes in hydrogeochemical conditions. To address this uncertainty, the biogeochemistry of Thompson mine (Manitoba, Canada) was investigated. Compositional and isotopic analyses of fracture waters collected here at ~1 km below land surface revealed different extents of mixing between subsurface brine and (paleo)meteoric waters. To investigate the effects this mixing may have had on microbial communities, the Most Probable Number technique was applied to test community response for a total of 13 different metabolisms. The results showed that all fracture waters were dominated by viable heterotrophic microorganisms which can utilize organic materials associated with aerobic/facultative anaerobic processes, sulfate reduction, or fermentation. Where mixing between subsurface brines and (paleo)meteoric waters occurs, the communities demonstrate higher cell densities and increased viable functional potentials, compared to the most saline sample. This study therefore highlights the connection between hydrogeologic heterogeneity and the heterogeneity of subsurface ecosystems in the crystalline rocks, and suggests that hydrogeology can have a considerable impact on the scope and scale of subsurface microbial communities on Earth and potentially beyond.

Ammonium-Enhanced Arsenic Mobilization from Aquifer Sediments

Ammonium-related pathways are important for groundwater arsenic (As) enrichment, especially via microbial Fe(III) reduction coupled with anaerobic ammonium oxidation; however, the key pathways (and microorganisms) underpinning ammonium-induced Fe(III) reduction and their contributions to As mobilization in groundwater are still unknown. To address this gap, aquifer sediments hosting high As groundwater from the western Hetao Basin were incubated with 15N-labeled ammonium and external organic carbon sources (including glucose, lactate, and lactate/acetate). Decreases in ammonium concentrations were positively correlated with increases in the total produced Fe(II) (Fe(II)tot) and released As. The molar ratios of Fe(II)tot to oxidized ammonium ranged from 3.1 to 3.7 for all incubations, and the δ15N values of N2 from the headspace increased in 15N-labeled ammonium-treated series, suggesting N2 as the key end product of ammonium oxidation. The addition of ammonium increased the As release by 16.1% to 49.6%, which was more pronounced when copresented with organic electron donors. Genome-resolved metagenomic analyses (326 good-quality MAGs) suggested that ammonium-induced Fe(III) reduction in this system required syntrophic metabolic interactions between bacterial Fe(III) reduction and archaeal ammonium oxidation. The current results highlight the significance of syntrophic ammonium-stimulated Fe(III) reduction in driving As mobilization, which is underestimated in high As groundwater.

Microbial ecology of the deep terrestrial subsurface

The terrestrial subsurface hosts microbial communities that, collectively, are predicted to comprise as many microbial cells as global surface soils. Although initially thought to be associated with deposited organic matter, deep subsurface microbial communities are supported by chemolithoautotrophic primary production, with hydrogen serving as an important source of electrons. Despite recent progress, relatively little is known about the deep terrestrial subsurface compared to more commonly studied environments. Understanding the composition of deep terrestrial subsurface microbial communities and the factors that influence them is of importance because of human-associated activities including long-term storage of used nuclear fuel, carbon capture, and storage of hydrogen for use as an energy vector. In addition to identifying deep subsurface microorganisms, recent research focuses on identifying the roles of microorganisms in subsurface communities, as well as elucidating myriad interactions-syntrophic, episymbiotic, and viral-that occur among community members. In recent years, entirely new groups of microorganisms (i.e. candidate phyla radiation bacteria and Diapherotrites, Parvarchaeota, Aenigmarchaeota, Nanoloarchaeota, Nanoarchaeota archaea) have been discovered in deep terrestrial subsurface environments, suggesting that much remains unknown about this biosphere. This review explores the historical context for deep terrestrial subsurface microbial ecology and highlights recent discoveries that shape current ecological understanding of this poorly explored microbial habitat. Additionally, we highlight the need for multifaceted experimental approaches to observe phenomena such as cryptic cycles, complex interactions, and episymbiosis, which may not be apparent when using single approaches in isolation, but are nonetheless critical to advancing our understanding of this deep biosphere.

Metabolic profiling of petroleum-degrading microbial communities incubated under high-pressure conditions

While pressure is a significant characteristic of petroleum reservoirs, it is often overlooked in laboratory studies. To clarify the composition and metabolic properties of microbial communities under high-pressure conditions, we established methanogenic and sulfate-reducing enrichment cultures under high-pressure conditions using production water from the Jilin Oilfield in China. We utilized a metagenomics approach to analyze the microbial community after a 90-day incubation period. Under methanogenic conditions, Firmicutes, Deferribacteres, Ignavibacteriae, Thermotogae, and Nitrospirae, in association with the hydrogenotrophic methanogen Archaeoglobaceae and acetoclastic Methanosaeta, were highly represented. Genomes for Ca. Odinarchaeota and the hydrogen-dependent methylotrophic Ca. Methanosuratus were also recovered from the methanogenic culture. The sulfate-reducing community was dominated by Firmicutes, Thermotogae, Nitrospirae, Archaeoglobus, and several candidate taxa including Ca. Bipolaricaulota, Ca. Aminicenantes, and Candidate division WOR-3. These candidate taxa were key pantothenate producers for other community members. The study expands present knowledge of the metabolic roles of petroleum-degrading microbial communities under high-pressure conditions. Our results also indicate that microbial community interactions were shaped by syntrophic metabolism and the exchange of amino acids and cofactors among members. Furthermore, incubation under in situ pressure conditions has the potential to reveal the roles of microbial dark matter.

Coexistence of Psychrophilic, Mesophilic, and Thermophilic Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria in a Deep Subsurface Aquifer Associated with Coal-Bed Methane Production

The microbial community of subsurface environments remains understudied due to limited access to deep strata and aquifers. Coal-bed methane (CBM) production is associated with a large number of wells pumping water out of coal seams. CBM wells provide access to deep biotopes associated with coal-bed water. Temperature is one of the key constraints for the distribution and activity of subsurface microorganisms, including sulfate-reducing prokaryotes (SRP). The 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing coupled with in situ sulfate reduction rate (SRR) measurements with a radioactive tracer and cultivation at various temperatures revealed that the SRP community of the coal bed water of the Kuzbass coal basin is characterized by an overlapping mesophilic-psychrophilic boundary. The genus Desulfovibrio comprised a significant share of the SRP community. The D. psychrotolerans strain 1203, which has a growth optimum below 20 °C, dominated the cultivated SRP. SRR in coal bed water varied from 0.154 ± 0.07 to 2.04 ± 0.048 nmol S cm-3 day-1. Despite the ambient water temperature of ~ 10-20 °C, an active thermophilic SRP community occurred in the fracture water, which reduced sulfate with the rate of 0.159 ± 0.023 to 0.198 ± 0.007 nmol S cm-3 day-1 at 55 °C. A novel moderately thermophilic "Desulforudis audaxviator"-clade SRP has been isolated in pure culture from the coal-bed water.

Sulfur-cycling chemolithoautotrophic microbial community dominates a cold, anoxic, hypersaline Arctic spring

BACKGROUND

Gypsum Hill Spring, located in Nunavut in the Canadian High Arctic, is a rare example of a cold saline spring arising through thick permafrost. It perennially discharges cold (~ 7 °C), hypersaline (7-8% salinity), anoxic (~ 0.04 ppm O2), and highly reducing (~ - 430 mV) brines rich in sulfate (2.2 g.L-1) and sulfide (9.5 ppm), making Gypsum Hill an analog to putative sulfate-rich briny habitats on extraterrestrial bodies such as Mars.

RESULTS

Genome-resolved metagenomics and metatranscriptomics were utilized to describe an active microbial community containing novel metagenome-assembled genomes and dominated by sulfur-cycling Desulfobacterota and Gammaproteobacteria. Sulfate reduction was dominated by hydrogen-oxidizing chemolithoautotrophic Desulfovibrionaceae sp. and was identified in phyla not typically associated with sulfate reduction in novel lineages of Spirochaetota and Bacteroidota. Highly abundant and active sulfur-reducing Desulfuromusa sp. highly transcribed non-coding RNAs associated with transcriptional regulation, showing potential evidence of putative metabolic flexibility in response to substrate availability. Despite low oxygen availability, sulfide oxidation was primarily attributed to aerobic chemolithoautotrophic Halothiobacillaceae. Low abundance and transcription of photoautotrophs indicated sulfur-based chemolithoautotrophy drives primary productivity even during periods of constant illumination.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified a rare surficial chemolithoautotrophic, sulfur-cycling microbial community active in a unique anoxic, cold, hypersaline Arctic spring. We detected Mars-relevant metabolisms including hydrogenotrophic sulfate reduction, sulfur reduction, and sulfide oxidation, which indicate the potential for microbial life in analogous S-rich brines on past and present Mars. Video Abstract.

Sub-Liquid and Atmospheric Measurement Instrument To Autonomously Monitor the Biochemistry of Natural Aquatic Ecosystems

Monitoring the biochemistry of aquatic ecosystems is critical to understanding the biogeochemical cycling induced by microorganisms. They play a vital role in climate-gaseous drivers associated with natural ecosystems, such as methane emission in wetlands and peatlands; gas cycling and fixation: methane, sulfur, carbon, and nitrogen; water quality assessment and remediation; monitoring oxygen saturation due to contamination and algal proliferation; and many more. Microorganisms interact with these environments inducing diurnal and seasonal changes that have been, to date, poorly characterized. To aid with the long-term in-situ monitoring of natural aquatic ecosystems, we designed a Sub-liquid and Atmospheric Measurement (SAM) instrument. This floating platform can autonomously measure various sub-liquid and atmospheric parameters over a long time. This paper describes the design of SAM and illustrates how its long-term operation can produce critical information to complement other standard laboratory-based microbiological studies.

Deep Isolated Aquifer Brines Harbor Atypical Halophilic Microbial Communities in Quebec, Canada

The deep terrestrial subsurface, hundreds of meters to kilometers below the surface, is characterized by oligotrophic conditions, dark and often anoxic settings, with fluctuating pH, salinity, and water availability. Despite this, microbial populations are detected and active, contributing to biogeochemical cycles over geological time. Because it is extremely difficult to access the deep biosphere, little is known about the identity and metabolisms of these communities, although they likely possess unknown pathways and might interfere with deep waste deposits. Therefore, we analyzed rock and groundwater microbial communities from deep, isolated brine aquifers in two regions dating back to the Ordovician and Devonian, using amplicon and whole genome sequencing. We observed significant differences in diversity and community structure between both regions, suggesting an impact of site age and composition. The deep hypersaline groundwater did not contain typical halophilic bacteria, and genomes suggested pathways involved in protein and hydrocarbon degradation, and carbon fixation. We identified mainly one strategy to cope with osmotic stress: compatible solute uptake and biosynthesis. Finally, we detected many bacteriophage families, potentially indicating that bacteria are infected. However, we also found auxiliary metabolic genes in the viral genomes, probably conferring an advantage to the infected hosts.

Microbial communities and their roles in the Cenozoic sulfurous oil reservoirs in the Southwestern Qaidam Basin, Western China

The latest discovery of sulfurous natural gas marked a breakthrough in the Cenozoic natural gas exploration in the southwestern margin of Qaidam Basin. The 16S rRNA analyses were performed on the crude oil samples from H2S-rich reservoirs in the Yuejin, Shizigou and Huatugou profiles, to understand the sulfurous gas origin, which was also integrated with carbon and hydrogen isotopes of alkane and sulfur isotopes of H2S collected from the Yingxiongling Area. Results show that the microorganisms in samples can survive in the hypersaline reservoirs, and can be classified into multiple phyla, including Proteobacteria, Planctomycetes, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Haloanaerobiaeota. Methanogens are abundant in all of the three profiles, while sulfate-reducing bacteria are abundant in Yuejin and Huatugou profiles, contributing to the methane and H2S components in the natural gas. The carbon, hydrogen and sulfur isotopes of sulfurous natural gas in the Yingxiongling Area show that the natural gas is a mixture of coal-type gas and oil-type gas, which was primarily derived from thermal degradation, and natural gas from the Yuejin and Huatugou profiles also originated from biodegradation. The isotopic analysis agrees well with the 16S rRNA results, i.e., H2S-rich natural gas from the Cenozoic reservoirs in the southwest margin of the Qaidam Basin was primarily of thermal genesis, with microbial genesis of secondary importance.

Maleic anhydride promotes humus formation via inducing functional enzymes response in composting

The purpose of this paper was to explore the promotion of maleic anhydride on the polymerization of precursors into humus in composting, and analyze the changes of key functional enzymes. The results showed that the content of humus in the treatment group added maleic anhydride (MAH) was higher than that in the control check (CK). The decrease rate of humus precursor concentration of MAH was also higher than that of CK. In MAH, the activities of laccase and tyrosinase were improved, thus enhanced the catalytic conversion of humus precursors. The analysis of bacterial community showed that maleic anhydride optimized the community structure of humification functional enzymes producing bacteria, with the most obvious increase of Firmicutes. In conclusion, this study provided theoretical supports for the introduction of maleic anhydride into the compost system to promote the polymerization of precursors to form humus.

Proposal to include the categories kingdom and domain in the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes

Observations made after introduction of the phylum category into the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (ICNP) indicate that the addition of a category should usually be conducted before informal names at that rank become widely used. It is thus investigated whether it would be beneficial to add further categories. An extrapolation from the number of names validly published under the ICNP at the distinct principal categories was conducted. This extrapolation indicated that two principal ranks above phylum rank would also harbour validly published names if the according categories were covered by the ICNP. The appropriate categories would be kingdom and domain, regarded as separate principal ranks. The benefit from introducing these ranks is confirmed by analysing the previous taxonomic activity above phylum level and the nomenclatural problems associated with this activity. An etymological examination of the way names of taxa above genus level are formed under distinct codes of nomenclature provides hints for implementing additional categories. According emendations of the ICNP are proposed to include kingdom and domain as a means of further stabilizing prokaryotic nomenclature.

A deep continental aquifer downhole sampler for microbiological studies

To be effective, microbiological studies of deep aquifers must be free from surface microbial contaminants and from infrastructures allowing access to formation water (wellheads, well completions). Many microbiological studies are based on water samples obtained after rinsing a well without guaranteeing the absence of contaminants from the biofilm development in the pipes. The protocol described in this paper presents the adaptation, preparation, sterilization and deployment of a commercial downhole sampler (PDSshort, Leutert, Germany) for the microbiological studying of deep aquifers. The ATEX sampler (i.e., explosive atmospheres) can be deployed for geological gas storage (methane, hydrogen). To validate our procedure and confirm the need to use such a device, cell counting and bacterial taxonomic diversity based on high-throughput sequencing for different water samples taken at the wellhead or at depth using the downhole sampler were compared and discussed. The results show that even after extensive rinsing (7 bore volumes), the water collected at the wellhead was not free of microbial contaminants, as shown by beta-diversity analysis. The downhole sampler procedure was the only way to ensure the purity of the formation water samples from the microbiological point of view. In addition, the downhole sampler allowed the formation water and the autochthonous microbial community to be maintained at in situ pressure for laboratory analysis. The prevention of the contamination of the sample and the preservation of its representativeness are key to guaranteeing the best interpretations and understanding of the functioning of the deep biosphere.

Carbon sequestration from refractory dissolved organic carbon produced by biodegradation of Saccharina japonica

Using macroalgae cultures to sequester carbon has been proposed in recent years. Yet the key mechanism of carbon sequestration-how carbon in degrading biomass is converted into refractory dissolved organic carbon (RDOC) remains poorly understood. The process of producting RDOC via biomass degradation of Saccharina japonica, the most productive algae in China, was thus studied in the laboratory. Most of the carbon in the kelp biomass was converted to dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) by bacterial respiration. Only 7.8% of the carbon in the kelp biomass was converted into labile DOC, semi-labile or semi-refractory DOC, and refractory DOC in turn. The enrichment of DIC resulted in hypoxic conditions in the water. For the hypoxia in the experiment, the sulfur-degrading bacteria Campylobacteria and Bacteroidia became the dominant bacterial classes, which were the key drivers for the transformation of labile DOC to semi-labile or semi-refractory DOC. Then, semi-labile or semi-refractory DOC was converted to RDOC, driven by the sulfite-reducing bacteria Clostridia and Kapabacteria. Finally, 0.3% of the carbon content in kelp was transformed into RDOC. The resulting RDOC, which was rich in sulfur and nitrogen elements, increased the molecular diversity and average molecular weight in the water. An important finding was that the production of RDOC may be accompanied by the environmental risk of hypoxia.

Depth wide distribution and metabolic potential of chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms reactivated from deep continental granitic crust underneath the Deccan Traps at Koyna, India

Characterization of inorganic carbon (C) utilizing microorganisms from deep crystalline rocks is of major scientific interest owing to their crucial role in global carbon and other elemental cycles. In this study we investigate the microbial populations from the deep [up to 2,908 meters below surface (mbs)] granitic rocks within the Koyna seismogenic zone, reactivated (enriched) under anaerobic, high temperature (50°C), chemolithoautotrophic conditions. Subsurface rock samples from six different depths (1,679-2,908 mbs) are incubated (180 days) with CO2 (+H2) or HCO3 - as the sole C source. Estimation of total protein, ATP, utilization of NO3 - and SO4 2- and 16S rRNA gene qPCR suggests considerable microbial growth within the chemolithotrophic conditions. We note a better response of rock hosted community towards CO2 (+H2) over HCO3 -. 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing shows a depth-wide distribution of diverse chemolithotrophic (and a few fermentative) Bacteria and Archaea. Comamonas, Burkholderia-Caballeronia-Paraburkholderia, Ralstonia, Klebsiella, unclassified Burkholderiaceae and Enterobacteriaceae are reactivated as dominant organisms from the enrichments of the deeper rocks (2335-2,908 mbs) with both CO2 and HCO3 -. For the rock samples from shallower depths, organisms of varied taxa are enriched under CO2 (+H2) and HCO3 -. Pseudomonas, Rhodanobacter, Methyloversatilis, and Thaumarchaeota are major CO2 (+H2) utilizers, while Nocardioides, Sphingomonas, Aeromonas, respond towards HCO3 -. H2 oxidizing Cupriavidus, Hydrogenophilus, Hydrogenophaga, CO2 fixing Cyanobacteria Rhodobacter, Clostridium, Desulfovibrio and methanogenic archaea are also enriched. Enriched chemolithoautotrophic members show good correlation with CO2, CH4 and H2 concentrations of the native rock environments, while the organisms from upper horizons correlate more to NO3 -, SO4 2- , Fe and TIC levels of the rocks. Co-occurrence networks suggest close interaction between chemolithoautotrophic and chemoorganotrophic/fermentative organisms. Carbon fixing 3-HP and DC/HB cycles, hydrogen, sulfur oxidation, CH4 and acetate metabolisms are predicted in the enriched communities. Our study elucidates the presence of live, C and H2 utilizing Bacteria and Archaea in deep subsurface granitic rocks, which are enriched successfully. Significant impact of depth and geochemical controls on relative distribution of various chemolithotrophic species enriched and their C and H2 metabolism are highlighted. These endolithic microorganisms show great potential for answering the fundamental questions of deep life and their exploitation in CO2 capture and conversion to useful products.

Key players in syntrophic propionate oxidation revealed by metagenome-assembled genomes from anaerobic digesters bioaugmented with propionic acid enriched microbial consortia

Propionic acid (HPr) is frequently accumulated in anaerobic digesters due to its thermodynamically unfavorable degradation reaction. Here, we identify key players in HPr oxidation and organic overloading recovery from metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) recovered from anaerobic digesters inoculated with HPr-enriched microbial consortia before initiating organic overloading. Two independent HPr-enrichment cultures commonly selected two uncultured microorganisms represented with high relative abundance: Methanoculleus sp002497965 and JABUEY01 sp013314815 (a member of the Syntrophobacteraceae family). The relative abundance of JABUEY01 sp013314815 was 60 times higher in bioaugmented bioreactors compared to their unaugmented counterparts after recovery from organic overloading. Genomic analysis of JABUEY01 sp013314815 revealed its metabolic potential for syntrophic propionate degradation when partnered with hydrogenotrophic methanogens (e.g., Methanoculleus sp002497965) via the methylmalonyl-CoA pathway. Our results identified at least two key species that are responsible for efficient propionate removal and demonstrate their potential applications as microbial cocktails for stable AD operation.

Enrichment of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria using S-doped NiFe2O4 nanosheets as the anode in microbial fuel cell enhances power production and sulfur recovery

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have great promise for power generation by oxidizing organic wastewater, yet the challenge to realize high efficiency in simultaneous energy production and resource recovery remains. In this study, we designed a novel MFC anode by synthesizing S-doped NiFe₂O₄ nanosheet arrays on carbon cloth (S10-NiFe₂O₄@CC) to build a three-dimensional (3D) hierarchically porous structure, with the aim to regulate the microbial community of sulfur-cycling microbes in order to enhance power production and elemental sulfur (S⁰) recovery. The S10-NiFe₂O₄@CC anode obtained a faster start-up time of 2 d and the highest power density of 4.5 W/m² in acetate-fed and mixed bacteria-based MFCs. More importantly, sulfide removal efficiency (98.3 %) (initial concentration of 50 mg/L S^2-) could be achieved within 3 d and sulfur (S₈) could be produced. Microbial community analysis revealed that the S10-NiFe₂O₄@CC anode markedly enriched sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) and promoted enrichment of SOB and sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in the bulk solution as well, leading to the enhancement of power generation and S⁰ recovery. This study shows how carefully designing and optimizing the composition and structure of the anode can lead to the enrichment of a multifunctional microbiota with excellent potential for sulfide removal and resource recovery.

Bacterial Necromass Is Rapidly Metabolized by Heterotrophic Bacteria and Supports Multiple Trophic Levels of the Groundwater Microbiome

Pristine groundwater is a highly stable environment with microbes adapted to dark, oligotrophic conditions. Input events like heavy rainfalls can introduce the excess particulate organic matter, including surface-derived microorganisms, thereby disturbing the groundwater microbiome. Some surface-derived bacteria will not survive this translocation, leading to an input of necromass to the groundwater. Here, we investigated the effects of necromass addition to the microbial community in fractured bedrock groundwater, using groundwater mesocosms as model systems. We followed the uptake of ¹³C-labeled necromass by the bacterial and eukaryotic groundwater community quantitatively and over time using a complementary protein-stable and DNA-stable isotope probing approach. Necromass was rapidly depleted in the mesocosms within 4 days, accompanied by a strong decrease in Shannon diversity and a 10-fold increase in bacterial 16S rRNA gene copy numbers. Species of Flavobacterium, Massilia, Rheinheimera, Rhodoferax, and Undibacterium dominated the microbial community within 2 days and were identified as key players in necromass degradation, based on a ¹³C incorporation of >90% in their peptides. Their proteomes comprised various proteins for uptake and transport functions and amino acid metabolization. After 4 and 8 days, the autotrophic and mixotrophic taxa Nitrosomonas, Limnohabitans, Paucibacter, and Acidovorax increased in abundance with a ¹³C incorporation between 0.5% and 23%. Likewise, eukaryotes assimilated necromass-derived carbon either directly or indirectly. Our data point toward a fast and exclusive uptake of labeled necromass by a few specialists followed by a concerted action of groundwater microorganisms, including autotrophs presumably fueled by released, reduced nitrogen and sulfur compounds generated during necromass degradation.

IMPORTANCE Subsurface microbiomes provide essential ecosystem services, like the generation of drinking water. These ecosystems are devoid of light-driven primary production, and microbial life is adapted to the resulting oligotrophic conditions. Modern groundwater is most vulnerable to anthropogenic and climatic impacts. Heavy rainfalls, which will increase with climate change, can result in high surface inputs into shallow aquifers by percolation or lateral flow. These inputs include terrestrial organic matter and surface-derived microbes that are not all capable to flourish in aquatic subsurface habitats. Here, we investigated the response of groundwater mesocosms to the addition of bacterial necromass, simulating event-driven surface input. We found that the groundwater microbiome responds with a rapid bloom of only a few primary degraders, followed by the activation of typical groundwater autotrophs and mixotrophs, as well as eukaryotes. Our results suggest that this multiphase strategy is essential to maintain the balance of the groundwater microbiome to provide ecosystem services.

Epilithic Microbial Community Functionality in Deep Oligotrophic Continental Bedrock

The deep terrestrial biosphere hosts vast sessile rock surface communities and biofilms, but thus far, mostly planktic communities have been studied. We enriched deep subsurface microbial communities on mica schist in microcosms containing bedrock groundwater from the depth of 500 m from Outokumpu, Finland. The biofilms were visualized using scanning electron microscopy, revealing numerous different microbial cell morphologies and attachment strategies on the mica schist surface, e.g., bacteria with outer membrane vesicle-like structures, hair-like extracellular extensions, and long tubular cell structures expanding over hundreds of micrometers over mica schist surfaces. Bacterial communities were analyzed with amplicon sequencing showing that Pseudomonas, Desulfosporosinus, Hydrogenophaga, and Brevundimonas genera dominated communities after 8–40 months of incubation. A total of 21 metagenome assembled genomes from sessile rock surface metagenomes identified genes involved in biofilm formation, as well as a wide variety of metabolic traits indicating a high degree of environmental adaptivity to oligotrophic environment and potential for shifting between multiple energy or carbon sources. In addition, we detected ubiquitous organic carbon oxidation and capacity for arsenate and selenate reduction within our rocky MAGs. Our results agree with the previously suggested interaction between the deep subsurface microbial communities and the rock surfaces, and that this interaction could be crucial for sustaining life in the harsh anoxic and oligotrophic deep subsurface of crystalline bedrock environment.

Novel nitrite reductase domain structure suggests a chimeric denitrification repertoire in the phylum Chloroflexi

Denitrification plays a central role in the global nitrogen cycle, reducing and removing nitrogen from marine and terrestrial ecosystems. The flux of nitrogen species through this pathway has a widespread impact, affecting ecological carrying capacity, agriculture, and climate. Nitrite reductase (Nir) and nitric oxide reductase (NOR) are the two central enzymes in this pathway. Here we present a previously unreported Nir domain architecture in members of phylum Chloroflexi. Phylogenetic analyses of protein domains within Nir indicate that an ancestral horizontal transfer and fusion event produced this chimeric domain architecture. We also identify an expanded genomic diversity of a rarely reported NOR subtype, eNOR. Together, these results suggest a greater diversity of denitrification enzyme arrangements exist than have been previously reported.

Microbial commensalism-assisted fast acclimation of HAP-anammox granules to dewatered liquid of dry methane fermentation

The treatment of a dewatered liquid of dry fermentation via the anammox process was investigated in the present study. Fast acclimation was established: within 2-months of operation, nitrogen removal rate reached 5 times (5.5 g-N/L/d) higher than it was at startup, which was achieved by inoculation with cold-stored HAP-anammox granules and inhibition control. The specific anammox activity of the dewatered liquid was highly improved and quite comparable to that of synthetic wastewater. Ca. Kuenenia with the relative abundance of 31.1% was revealed to be the only anammox genre and maintained its dominance throughout the operation. Simultaneously, Ca. D. denitrificans was proliferated, with its relative abundance increasing from 1.5% to 14.9%. The microbial co-occurrence network of HAP-anammox granules developed during the treatment of the dewatered liquid of dry fermentation. The experience of this work provides valuable strategies facilitating fast acclimation of the anammox process for the treatment of high-strength wastewater.

Microbial diversity and function in crystalline basement beneath the Deccan Traps explored in a 3 km borehole at Koyna, western India

Deep terrestrial subsurface represents a huge repository of global prokaryotic biomass. Given its vastness and importance, microbial life within the deep subsurface continental crust remains under-represented in global studies. We characterize the microbial communities of deep, extreme and oligotrophic realm hosted by crystalline Archaean granitic rocks underneath the Deccan Traps, through sampling via 3000 m deep scientific borehole at Koyna, India through metagenomics, amplicon sequencing and cultivation-based analyses. Gene sequences 16S rRNA (7.37 × 10⁶ ) show considerable bacterial diversity and the existence of a core microbiome (5724 operational taxonomic units conserved out of a total 118,064 OTUs) across the depths. Relative abundance of different taxa of core microbiome varies with depth in response to prevailing lithology and geochemistry. Co-occurrence network analysis and cultivation attempt to elucidate close interactions among autotrophic and organotrophic bacteria. Shotgun metagenomics reveals a major role of autotrophic carbon fixation via the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway and genes responsible for energy and carbon metabolism. Deeper analysis suggests the existence of an 'acetate switch', coordinating biosynthesis and cellular homeostasis. We conclude that the microbial life in the nutrient- and energy-limited deep granitic crust is constrained by the depth and managed by a few core members via a close interplay between autotrophy and organotrophy.

Microbial Diversity Under the Influence of Natural Gas Storage in a Deep Aquifer

Deep aquifers (up to 2km deep) contain massive volumes of water harboring large and diverse microbial communities at high pressure. Aquifers are home to microbial ecosystems that participate in physicochemical balances. These microorganisms can positively or negatively interfere with subsurface (i) energy storage (CH4 and H2), (ii) CO2 sequestration; and (iii) resource (water, rare metals) exploitation. The aquifer studied here (720m deep, 37°C, 88bar) is naturally oligotrophic, with a total organic carbon content of <1mg.L-1 and a phosphate content of 0.02mg.L-1. The influence of natural gas storage locally generates different pressures and formation water displacements, but it also releases organic molecules such as monoaromatic hydrocarbons at the gas/water interface. The hydrocarbon biodegradation ability of the indigenous microbial community was evaluated in this work. The in situ microbial community was dominated by sulfate-reducing (e.g., Sva0485 lineage, Thermodesulfovibriona, Desulfotomaculum, Desulfomonile, and Desulfovibrio), fermentative (e.g., Peptococcaceae SCADC1_2_3, Anaerolineae lineage and Pelotomaculum), and homoacetogenic bacteria ("Candidatus Acetothermia") with a few archaeal representatives (e.g., Methanomassiliicoccaceae, Methanobacteriaceae, and members of the Bathyarcheia class), suggesting a role of H2 in microenvironment functioning. Monoaromatic hydrocarbon biodegradation is carried out by sulfate reducers and favored by concentrated biomass and slightly acidic conditions, which suggests that biodegradation should preferably occur in biofilms present on the surfaces of aquifer rock, rather than by planktonic bacteria. A simplified bacterial community, which was able to degrade monoaromatic hydrocarbons at atmospheric pressure over several months, was selected for incubation experiments at in situ pressure (i.e., 90bar). These showed that the abundance of various bacterial genera was altered, while taxonomic diversity was mostly unchanged. The candidate phylum Acetothermia was characteristic of the community incubated at 90bar. This work suggests that even if pressures on the order of 90bar do not seem to select for obligate piezophilic organisms, modifications of the thermodynamic equilibria could favor different microbial assemblages from those observed at atmospheric pressure.

Characterization of Martelella soudanensis sp. nov., Isolated from a Mine Sediment

Gram-stain-negative, strictly aerobic, non-spore-forming, non-motile, and rod-shaped bacterial strains, designated NC18^T and NC20, were isolated from the sediment near-vertical borehole effluent originating 714 m below the subsurface located in the Soudan Iron Mine in Minnesota, USA. The 16S rRNA gene sequence showed that strains NC18^T and NC20 grouped with members of the genus Martelella, including M. mediterranea DSM 17316^T and M. limonii YC7034^T. The genome sizes and G + C content of both NC18^T and NC20 were 6.1 Mb and 61.8 mol%, respectively. Average nucleotide identity (ANI), the average amino acid identity (AAI), and digital DNA–DNA hybridization (dDDH) values were below the species delineation threshold. Pan-genomic analysis showed that NC18^T, NC20, M. mediterranea DSM 17316^T, M. endophytica YC6887^T, and M. lutilitoris GH2-6^T had 8470 pan-genome orthologous groups (POGs) in total. Five Martelella strains shared 2258 POG core, which were mainly associated with amino acid transport and metabolism, general function prediction only, carbohydrate transport and metabolism, translation, ribosomal structure and biogenesis, and transcription. The two novel strains had major fatty acids (>5%) including summed feature 8 (C18:1 ω7c and/or C18:1 ω6c), C19:0 cyclo ω8c, C16:0, C18:1 ω7c 11-methyl, C18:0, and summed feature 2 (C12:0 aldehyde and/or iso-C16:1 I and/or C14:0 3-OH). The sole respiratory quinone was uniquinone-10 (Q-10). On the basis of polyphasic taxonomic analyses, strains NC18^T and NC20 represent novel species of the genus Martelella, for which the name Martelella soudanensis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is NC18^T (=KTCT 82174^T = NBRC 114661^T).