1
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Crook B, Young C, Rideout C, Smith D. The Contribution of Legionella anisa to Legionella Contamination of Water in the Built Environment. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2024; 21:1101. [PMID: 39200710 PMCID: PMC11354164 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph21081101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2024] [Revised: 08/15/2024] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/02/2024]
Abstract
Legionella bacteria can proliferate in poorly maintained water systems, posing risks to users. All Legionella species are potentially pathogenic, but Legionella pneumophila (L. pneumophila) is usually the primary focus of testing. However, Legionella anisa (L. anisa) also colonizes water distribution systems, is frequently found with L. pneumophila, and could be a good indicator for increased risk of nosocomial infection. Anonymized data from three commercial Legionella testing laboratories afforded an analysis of 565,750 water samples. The data covered July 2019 to August 2021, including the COVID-19 pandemic. The results confirmed that L. anisa commonly colonizes water distribution systems, being the most frequently identified non-L. pneumophila species. The proportions of L. anisa and L. pneumophila generally remained similar, but increases in L. pneumophila during COVID-19 lockdown suggest static water supplies might favor its growth. Disinfection of hospital water systems was effective, but re-colonization did occur, appearing to favor L. pneumophila; however, L. anisa colony numbers also increased as a proportion of the total. While L. pneumophila remains the main species of concern as a risk to human health, L. anisa's role should not be underestimated, either as a potential infection risk or as an indicator of the need to intervene to control Legionella's colonization of water supplies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Crook
- Science and Research Centre, Health and Safety Executive, Harpur Hill, Buxton, Derbyshire SK17 9JN, UK
| | - Charlotte Young
- Science and Research Centre, Health and Safety Executive, Harpur Hill, Buxton, Derbyshire SK17 9JN, UK
| | - Ceri Rideout
- Specialist Division Occupational Hygiene, Health and Safety Executive, Cardiff CF10 1EP, UK
| | - Duncan Smith
- Specialist Division Health Unit, Health and Safety Executive, Newcastle upon Tyne NE98 1YX, UK;
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2
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Nakajima N, Jinnai M, Izumiyama S, Kuroki T. Evaluating Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy with IR Biotyper as a faster and simpler method for investigating the sources of an outbreak of legionellosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2024; 43:991-997. [PMID: 38379053 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-024-04781-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy using the IR Biotyper and core genome single nucleotide polymorphism (cgSNP) analysis were performed on 12 Legionella isolates associated with an outbreak at a spa house in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, and 3 non-outbreak isolates. The discriminative power of FTIR spectroscopy for 48-h incubation conditions of L. pneumophila in this outbreak was lower than cgSNP-based typing but higher than serogroup typing. FTIR spectroscopy could screen outbreak isolates from a group of genetically related isolates and may be useful as an initial typing method in Legionella outbreak investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Nakajima
- Department of Microbiology, Kanagawa Prefectural Institute of Public Health, 1-3-1 Shimomachiya, Chigasaki, Kanagawa, 253-0087, Japan.
| | - Michio Jinnai
- Department of Microbiology, Kanagawa Prefectural Institute of Public Health, 1-3-1 Shimomachiya, Chigasaki, Kanagawa, 253-0087, Japan
| | - Shinji Izumiyama
- Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toshiro Kuroki
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Okayama University of Science, Okayama, Japan
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3
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Farina C, Cacciabue E, Averara F, Ferri N, Vailati F, Del Castillo G, Serafini A, Fermi B, Doniselli N, Pezzoli F. Water Safety Plan, Monochloramine Disinfection and Extensive Environmental Sampling Effectively Control Legionella and Other Waterborne Pathogens in Nosocomial Settings: The Ten-Year Experience of an Italian Hospital. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1794. [PMID: 37512966 PMCID: PMC10384652 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11071794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Legionella contamination control is crucial in healthcare settings where patients suffer an increased risk of disease and fatal outcome. To ensure an effective management of this health hazard, the accurate application of a hospital-specific Water Safety Plan (WSP), the choice of a suitable water disinfection system and an extensive monitoring program are required. Here, the ten-year experience of an Italian hospital is reported: since its commissioning, Legionellosis risk management has been entrusted to a multi-disciplinary Working Group, applying the principles of the World Health Organization's WSP. The disinfection strategy to prevent Legionella and other waterborne pathogens relies on the treatment of domestic hot water with a system ensuring the in situ production and dosage of monochloramine. An average of 250 samples/year were collected and analyzed to allow an accurate assessment of the microbiological status of water network. With the aim of increasing the monitoring sensitivity, in addition to the standard culture method, an optimized MALDI-ToF MS-based strategy was applied, allowing the identification of Legionella species and other relevant opportunistic pathogens. Data collected so far confirmed the effectiveness of this multidisciplinary approach: the fraction of positive samples never overcame 1% on a yearly basis and Legionnaires' Disease cases never occurred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Farina
- Microbiology and Virology Laboratory, ASST "Papa Giovanni XXIII", 24127 Bergamo, Italy
| | - Eleonora Cacciabue
- Health Care Coordination Offices, ASST "Papa Giovanni XXIII", 24127 Bergamo, Italy
| | - Franca Averara
- Department of Health Care Professions, ASST "Papa Giovanni XXIII", 24127 Bergamo, Italy
| | - Nadia Ferri
- Microbiology and Virology Laboratory, ASST "Papa Giovanni XXIII", 24127 Bergamo, Italy
| | - Francesca Vailati
- Microbiology and Virology Laboratory, ASST "Papa Giovanni XXIII", 24127 Bergamo, Italy
| | | | | | - Beatrice Fermi
- Sanipur S.p.A., 25020 Flero, Italy
- ESCMID Study Group for Legionella Infections (ESGLI), 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicola Doniselli
- Sanipur S.p.A., 25020 Flero, Italy
- ESCMID Study Group for Legionella Infections (ESGLI), 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fabio Pezzoli
- Health Care Coordination Offices, ASST "Papa Giovanni XXIII", 24127 Bergamo, Italy
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4
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Marino F, Mazzotta M, Pascale MR, Derelitto C, Girolamini L, Cristino S. First water safety plan approach applied to a Dental Clinic complex: identification of new risk factors associated with Legionella and P. aeruginosa contamination, using a novel sampling, maintenance and management program. J Oral Microbiol 2023; 15:2223477. [PMID: 37346998 PMCID: PMC10281406 DOI: 10.1080/20002297.2023.2223477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Dental unit waterlines (DUWLs) represent a complex environment able to promote microbial contamination, due to functional, mechanical and practical risk factors. According to a water safety plan approach, the main goal is to preserve the health of dentists, dental staff and patients. The aim of this study is to develop a DUWLs water safety plan that is able to support correct and effective maintenance and disinfection procedures. Three different water systems serve 60 dental chairs: (i) water that comes directly from municipal water (Type A), (ii) water supplied by municipal water and water bottles (Type B) and (iii) water supplied only via water bottles (Type C). For each type, Legionella and Pseudomonas aeruginosa contamination was studied, by applying a new sampling scheme, based on separate sampling from water bottles, cup filler and handpieces. Type B DUWL is the only type of DUWL contaminated by L. pneumophila (ST 59) and L. anisa (mean contamination: 608.33 ± 253.33 cfu/L) detected in cup filler and handpieces, as well as the high presence of P. aeruginosa (44.42 ± 13.25 cfu/100 mL). Two subsequent shock treatments and resampling procedures were performed by increasing disinfectant dosage and contact time and removing some DUWL components linked to biofilm growth in DUWLs. A significant reduction of contamination was obtained for both microorganisms (Legionella spp.: -100%, p < 0.001 and P. aeruginosa: -99.86%, p = 0.006). The sampling strategy proposed allows us to identify the source of contamination and better focus on the maintenance and disinfection procedures. DUWLs represent an environment that requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining the knowledge of all DUWL components to correct procedures that are able to preserve the health of personnel and patients, as well as guaranteeing DUWLs' safe functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Marino
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marta Mazzotta
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Pascale
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Carlo Derelitto
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Luna Girolamini
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Study Group for Legionella Infections (ESGLI), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sandra Cristino
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Study Group for Legionella Infections (ESGLI), Basel, Switzerland
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5
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De Giglio O, D’Ambrosio M, Spagnuolo V, Diella G, Fasano F, Leone CM, Lopuzzo M, Trallo V, Calia C, Oliva M, Pazzani C, Iacumin L, Barigelli S, Petricciuolo M, Federici E, Lisena FP, Minicucci AM, Montagna MT. Legionella anisa or Legionella bozemanii? Traditional and molecular techniques as support in the environmental surveillance of a hospital water network. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 195:496. [PMID: 36947259 PMCID: PMC10033568 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-11078-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the actual distribution of different Legionella species in water networks would help prevent outbreaks. Culture investigations followed by serological agglutination tests, with poly/monovalent antisera, still represent the gold standard for isolation and identification of Legionella strains. However, also MALDI-TOF and mip-gene sequencing are currently used. This study was conducted to genetically correlate strains of Legionella non pneumophila (L-np) isolated during environmental surveillance comparing different molecular techniques. Overall, 346 water samples were collected from the water system of four pavilions located in a hospital of the Apulia Region of Italy. Strains isolated from the samples were then identified by serological tests, MALDI-TOF, and mip-gene sequencing. Overall, 24.9% of water samples were positive for Legionella, among which the majority were Legionella pneumophila (Lpn) 1 (52.3%), followed by Lpn2-15 (20.9%), L-np (17.4%), Lpn1 + Lpn2-15 (7.1%), and L-np + Lpn1 (2.3%). Initially, L-np strains were identified as L. bozemanii by monovalent antiserum, while MALDI-TOF and mip-gene sequencing assigned them to L. anisa. More cold water than hot water samples were contaminated by L. anisa (p < 0.001). PFGE, RAPD, Rep-PCR, and SAU-PCR were performed to correlate L. anisa strains. Eleven out of 14 strains identified in all four pavilions showed 100% of similarity upon PFGE analysis. RAPD, Rep-PCR, and SAU-PCR showed greater discriminative power than PFGE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osvalda De Giglio
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Hygiene, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Marilena D’Ambrosio
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Hygiene, Medical School, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Valentina Spagnuolo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Hygiene, Medical School, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Giusy Diella
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Hygiene, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Fasano
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Hygiene, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Carla Maria Leone
- Present Address: Section Hygiene - AOU Policlinico of Bari, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Marco Lopuzzo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Human Oncology, Section of Hygiene, Medical School, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Valeria Trallo
- Present Address: Section Hygiene - AOU Policlinico of Bari, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Carla Calia
- Department of Biology, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Marta Oliva
- Department of Biology, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Carlo Pazzani
- Department of Biology, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Lucilla Iacumin
- Department of Agricultural, Food, Environmental and Animal Science, University of Udine, Via Sondrio 2/a, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | - Sofia Barigelli
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, Via del Giochetto, 06122 Perugia, Italy
| | - Maya Petricciuolo
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, Via del Giochetto, 06122 Perugia, Italy
| | - Ermanno Federici
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, Via del Giochetto, 06122 Perugia, Italy
| | | | - Anna Maria Minicucci
- Health Management, A.O.U. Policlinico of Bari, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Maria Teresa Montagna
- Regional Reference Laboratory of Clinical and Environmental Surveillance of Legionellosis, Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Section of Hygiene, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
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6
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Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis of Legionella Pneumonia. Diagnostics (Basel) 2023; 13:diagnostics13020280. [PMID: 36673091 PMCID: PMC9858276 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics13020280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Legionella pneumonia is a relatively rare but extremely progressive pulmonary infection with high mortality. Traditional cultural isolation remains the gold standard for the diagnosis of Legionella pneumonia. However, its harsh culture conditions, long turnaround time, and suboptimal sensitivity do not meet the clinical need for rapid and accurate diagnosis, especially for critically ill patients. So far, pathogenic detection techniques including serological assays, urinary antigen tests, and mass spectrometry, as well as nucleic acid amplification technique, have been developed, and each has its own advantages and limitations. This review summarizes the clinical characteristics and imaging findings of Legionella pneumonia, then discusses the advances, advantages, and limitations of the various pathogenetic detection techniques used for Legionella pneumonia diagnosis. The aim is to provide rapid and accurate guiding options for early identification and diagnosis of Legionella pneumonia in clinical practice, further easing healthcare burden.
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7
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Svetlicic E, Jaén-Luchoro D, Klobucar RS, Jers C, Kazazic S, Franjevic D, Klobucar G, Shelton BG, Mijakovic I. Genomic characterization and assessment of pathogenic potential of Legionella spp. isolates from environmental monitoring. Front Microbiol 2023; 13:1091964. [PMID: 36713227 PMCID: PMC9879626 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1091964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Several species in the genus Legionella are known to cause an acute pneumonia when the aerosols containing the bacteria from man-made water systems are inhaled. The disease is usually caused by Legionella pneumophila, but other species have been implicated in the infection. The disease is frequently manifested as an outbreak, which means several people are affected when exposed to the common source of Legionella contamination. Therefor environmental surveillance which includes isolation and identification of Legionella is performed routinely. However, usually no molecular or genome-based methods are employed in further characterization of the isolates during routine environmental monitoring. During several years of such monitoring, isolates from different geographical locations were collected and 39 of them were sequenced by hybrid de novo approach utilizing short and long sequencing reads. In addition, the isolates were typed by standard culture and MALDI-TOF method. The sequencing reads were assembled and annotated to produce high-quality genomes. By employing discriminatory genome typing, four potential new species in the Legionella genus were identified, which are yet to be biochemically and morphologically characterized. Moreover, functional annotations concerning virulence and antimicrobial resistance were performed on the sequenced genomes. The study contributes to the knowledge on little-known non-pneumophila species present in man-made water systems and establishes support for future genetic relatedness studies as well as understanding of their pathogenic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ema Svetlicic
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Daniel Jaén-Luchoro
- Department of Infectious Diseases (Sahlgrenska Academy) at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Carsten Jers
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Snjezana Kazazic
- Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry and Functional Proteomics, Ruder Boskovic Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Damjan Franjevic
- Division of Zoology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Goran Klobucar
- Division of Zoology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Ivan Mijakovic
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark,Systems and Synthetic Biology Division, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden,*Correspondence: Ivan Mijakovic,
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8
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Tata A, Marzoli F, Cordovana M, Tiengo A, Zacometti C, Massaro A, Barco L, Belluco S, Piro R. A multi-center validation study on the discrimination of Legionella pneumophila sg.1, Legionella pneumophila sg. 2-15 and Legionella non- pneumophila isolates from water by FT-IR spectroscopy. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1150942. [PMID: 37125166 PMCID: PMC10133462 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1150942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
This study developed and validated a method, based on the coupling of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and machine learning, for the automated serotyping of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1, Legionella pneumophila serogroups 2-15 as well as their successful discrimination from Legionella non-pneumophila. As Legionella presents significant intra- and inter-species heterogeneities, careful data validation strategies were applied to minimize late-stage performance variations of the method across a large microbial population. A total of 244 isolates were analyzed. In details, the method was validated with a multi-centric approach with isolates from Italian thermal and drinking water (n = 82) as well as with samples from German, Italian, French, and British collections (n = 162). Specifically, robustness of the method was verified over the time-span of 1 year with multiple operators and two different FT-IR instruments located in Italy and Germany. Moreover, different production procedures for the solid culture medium (in-house or commercial) and different culture conditions (with and without 2.5% CO2) were tested. The method achieved an overall accuracy of 100, 98.5, and 93.9% on the Italian test set of Legionella, an independent batch of Legionella from multiple European culture collections, and an extra set of rare Legionella non-pneumophila, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Tata
- Laboratorio di Chimica Sperimentale, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Vicenza, Italy
- *Correspondence: Alessandra Tata,
| | - Filippo Marzoli
- Department of Food Safety, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | | | - Alessia Tiengo
- OIE Italian Reference Laboratory for Salmonella, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Padova, Italy
| | - Carmela Zacometti
- Laboratorio di Chimica Sperimentale, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Vicenza, Italy
| | - Andrea Massaro
- Laboratorio di Chimica Sperimentale, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Vicenza, Italy
| | - Lisa Barco
- OIE Italian Reference Laboratory for Salmonella, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Padova, Italy
| | - Simone Belluco
- Department of Food Safety, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Roberto Piro
- Laboratorio di Chimica Sperimentale, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Vicenza, Italy
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9
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Schwake DO, Sandrin T, Zhang L, Abbaszadegan M. Strain-Level Characterization of Legionella Environmental Isolates via MALDI-TOF-MS. Microorganisms 2022; 11:8. [PMID: 36677300 PMCID: PMC9863361 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11010008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
As a waterborne pathogen of increasing concern, techniques for cost-effective and rapid characterization of Legionella are vital. This study examines the development of a Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) analysis methodology for this microbe. First, optimal sample preparation methods for the analysis of environmental Legionella isolates via MALDI-TOF-MS were determined. These methods were then implemented to perform strain-level characterization of environmental Legionella isolates from central Arizona. Results demonstrate that a MALDI-TOF-MS method involving BCYE agar-based culturing and protein extraction-based sample preparation yield high-quality mass spectra. Twenty-eight environmental Legionella isolates originating from two separate drinking water distribution systems were analyzed. Multiple species were detected, and strain-level characterization was achieved, with 12 unique strains distinguished. In addition, isolates of L. pneumophila, the most common species observed in the study, were correctly assigned to specific sampling sites. These results demonstrate the potential for this technique to be applied for sub-species characterization of Legionella with significant benefits over established methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Otto Schwake
- Department of Natural Sciences, Middle Georgia State University, 100 University Pkwy, Macon, GA 31206, USA
| | - Todd Sandrin
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, New College of Interdisciplinary Arts & Sciences, Arizona State University at the West Campus, 4701 W. Thunderbird Road, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA
| | - Lin Zhang
- China Innovation Center, Shimadzu (China) Co., Beijing Branch, Beijing 100020, China
| | - Morteza Abbaszadegan
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University at the Tempe Campus, 1151 S. Forest Ave, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA
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10
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Recent Studies on Advance Spectroscopic Techniques for the Identification of Microorganisms: A Review. ARAB J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2022.104521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
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11
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“Omic” Approaches to Bacteria and Antibiotic Resistance Identification. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23179601. [PMID: 36077000 PMCID: PMC9455953 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23179601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The quick and accurate identification of microorganisms and the study of resistance to antibiotics is crucial in the economic and industrial fields along with medicine. One of the fastest-growing identification methods is the spectrometric approach consisting in the matrix-assisted laser ionization/desorption using a time-of-flight analyzer (MALDI-TOF MS), which has many advantages over conventional methods for the determination of microorganisms presented. Thanks to the use of a multiomic approach in the MALDI-TOF MS analysis, it is possible to obtain a broad spectrum of data allowing the identification of microorganisms, understanding their interactions and the analysis of antibiotic resistance mechanisms. In addition, the literature data indicate the possibility of a significant reduction in the time of the sample preparation and analysis time, which will enable a faster initiation of the treatment of patients. However, it is still necessary to improve the process of identifying and supplementing the existing databases along with creating new ones. This review summarizes the use of “-omics” approaches in the MALDI TOF MS analysis, including in bacterial identification and antibiotic resistance mechanisms analysis.
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12
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Evaluation of a Most Probable Number Method for Detection and Quantification of Legionella pneumophila. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11070789. [PMID: 35890033 PMCID: PMC9324539 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11070789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The detection and enumeration of Legionella pneumophila (L. pneumophila) in water is crucial for water quality management, human health and has been a research hotspot worldwide. Due to the time-consuming and complicated operation of the plate culture method, it is necessary to adopt a fast and effective method for application. The present study aimed to comprehensively evaluate the performance and applicability of the MPN method by comparing its qualitative and quantitative results with the GB/T 18204.5-2013 and ISO methods, respectively. The qualitative results showed that 372 samples (53%) were negative for both methods; 315 samples (45%) were positively determined by the MPN method, compared with 211 samples (30%) using GB/T 18204.5-2013. The difference in the detection rate between the two methods was statistically significant. In addition, the quantitative results showed that the concentration of L. pneumophila by the MPN method was greater than ISO 11731 and the difference was statistically significant. However, the two methods were different but highly correlated (r = 0.965, p < 0.001). The specificity and sensitivity of the MPN method were 89.85% and 95.73%, respectively. Overall, the results demonstrated that the MPN method has higher sensitivity, a simple operation process and good application prospects in the routine monitoring of L. pneumophila from water samples.
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13
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Girolamini L, Pascale MR, Mazzotta M, Spiteri S, Marino F, Salaris S, Grottola A, Orsini M, Cristino S. Combining Traditional and Molecular Techniques Supports the Discovery of a Novel Legionella Species During Environmental Surveillance in a Healthcare Facility. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:900936. [PMID: 35770167 PMCID: PMC9234573 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.900936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Legionella surveillance plays a significant role not only to prevent the risk of infection but also to study the ecology of isolates, their characteristics, and how their prevalence changes in the environment. The difficulty in Legionella isolation, identification, and typing results in a low notification rate; therefore, human infection is still underestimated. In addition, during Legionella surveillance, the special attention given to Legionella pneumophila leads to an underestimation of the prevalence and risk of infection for other species. This study describes the workflow performed during environmental Legionella surveillance that resulted in the isolation of two strains, named 8cVS16 and 9fVS26, associated with the genus Legionella. Traditional and novel approaches such as standard culture technique, MALDI-TOF MS, gene sequencing, and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) analysis were combined to demonstrate that isolates belong to a novel species. The strain characteristics, the differences between macrophage infectivity potential (mip), RNA polymerase β subunit (rpoB), and reference gene sequences, the average nucleotide identity (ANI) of 90.4%, and the DNA–DNA digital hybridization (dDDH) analysis of 43% demonstrate that these isolates belong to a new Legionella species. The finding suggests that, during the culture technique, special attention should be paid to the characteristics of the isolates that are less associated with the Legionella genus in order to investigate the differences found using more sensitive methods. The characterization of the two newly discovered isolates based on morphological, biochemical, and microscopic characteristics is currently underway and will be described in another future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luna Girolamini
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Study Group for Legionella Infections (ESGLI), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Maria Rosaria Pascale
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marta Mazzotta
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Simona Spiteri
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Specialty, Diagnostic and Experimental Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Federica Marino
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Silvano Salaris
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Antonella Grottola
- European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Study Group for Legionella Infections (ESGLI), Basel, Switzerland
- Regional Reference Laboratory for Clinical Diagnosis of Legionellosis, Molecular Microbiology and Virology Unit, University Hospital-Policlinico Modena, Modena, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Orsini
- Laboratory of Microbial Ecology and Genomics of Microorganisms, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Sandra Cristino
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Study Group for Legionella Infections (ESGLI), Basel, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Sandra Cristino
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Pascale MR, Bisognin F, Mazzotta M, Girolamini L, Marino F, Dal Monte P, Cordovana M, Scaturro M, Ricci ML, Cristino S. Use of Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy With IR Biotyper® System for Legionella pneumophila Serogroups Identification. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:866426. [PMID: 35558114 PMCID: PMC9090449 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.866426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Legionella spp. are Gram-negative bacteria that inhabit freshwater environments representing a serious risk for human health. Legionella pneumophila (Lp) is the species most frequently responsible for a severe pneumonia known as Legionnaires' disease. Lp consists of 15 serogroups (Sgs), usually identified by monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies. With regard to Lp serogrouping, it is well known that phenotyping methods do not have a sufficiently high discriminating power, while genotypic methods although very effective, are expensive and laborious. Recently, mass spectrometry and infrared spectroscopy have proved to be rapid and successful approaches for the microbial identification and typing. Different biomolecules (e.g., lipopolysaccharides) adsorb infrared radiation originating from a specific microbial fingerprint. The development of a classification system based on the intra-species identification features allows a rapid and reliable typing of strains for diagnostic and epidemiological purposes. The aim of the study was the evaluation of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy using the IR Biotyper® system (Bruker Daltonik, Germany) for the identification of Lp at the serogroup (Sg) level for diagnostic purposes as well as in outbreak events. A large dataset of Lp isolates (n = 133) and ATCC reference strains representing the 15 Lp serogroups were included. The discriminatory power of the instrument's classifier, was tested by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA). All isolates were classified as follows: 12/133 (9.0%) as Lp Sg1 and 115/133 (86.5%) as Lp Sg 2-15 (including both ATCC and environmental Lp serogroup). Moreover, a mis-classification for 2/133 (1.5%) isolates of Lp Sg 2-15 that returned as Lp Sg1 was observed, and 4/133 (3.0%) isolates were not classified. An accuracy of 95.49% and an error rate of 4.51% were calculated. IR Biotyper® is able provide a quick and cost-effective reliable Lp classification with advantages compared with agglutination tests that show ambiguous and unspecific results. Further studies including a larger number of isolates could be useful to implement the classifier obtaining a robust and reliable tool for the routine Lp serogrouping. IR Biotyper® could be a powerful and easy-to-use tool to identify Lp Sgs, especially during cluster/outbreak investigations, to trace the source of the infection and promptly adopt preventive and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rosaria Pascale
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesco Bisognin
- Microbiology Unit, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, IRCCS S. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marta Mazzotta
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Luna Girolamini
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Federica Marino
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Paola Dal Monte
- Microbiology Unit, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, IRCCS S. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Maria Scaturro
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Ricci
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Sandra Cristino
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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15
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Ashfaq MY, Da'na DA, Al-Ghouti MA. Application of MALDI-TOF MS for identification of environmental bacteria: A review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 305:114359. [PMID: 34959061 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria play a variety of roles in the environment. They maintain the balance in the ecosystem and provide different ecosystem services such as in biogeochemical cycling of nutrients, biodegradation of toxic pollutants, and others. Therefore, isolation and identification of different environmental bacteria are important to most environmental research. Due to the high cost and time associated with the conventional molecular techniques, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) has gained considerable attention for routine identification of bacteria. This review aims to provide an overview of the application of MALDI-TOF MS in various environmental studies through bibliometric analysis and literature review. The bibliometric analysis helped to understand the time-variable application of MALDI-TOF MS in various environmental studies. The categorical literature review covers various environmental studies comprising areas like ecology, food microbiology, environmental biotechnology, agriculture, and plant sciences, which show the application of the technique for identification and characterization of pollutant-degrading, plant-associated, disease-causing, soil-beneficial, and other environmental bacteria. Further research should focus on bridging the gap between the phylogenetic identity of bacteria and their specific environmental functions or metabolic traits that can help in rapid advancements in environmental research, thereby, improving time and cost savings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Y Ashfaq
- Environmental Science program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
| | - Dana A Da'na
- Environmental Science program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
| | - Mohammad A Al-Ghouti
- Environmental Science program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar.
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16
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Zhang C, Struewing I, Mistry JH, Wahman DG, Pressman J, Lu J. Legionella and other opportunistic pathogens in full-scale chloraminated municipal drinking water distribution systems. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 205:117571. [PMID: 34628111 PMCID: PMC8629321 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Water-based opportunistic pathogens (OPs) are a leading cause of drinking-water-related disease outbreaks, especially in developed countries such as the United States (US). Physicochemical water quality parameters, especially disinfectant residuals, control the (re)growth, presence, colonization, and concentrations of OPs in drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs), while the relationship between OPs and those parameters remain unclear. This study aimed to quantify how physicochemical parameters, mainly monochloramine residual concentration, hydraulic residence time (HRT), and seasonality, affected the occurrence and concentrations of four common OPs (Legionella, Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Vermamoeba vermiformis) in four full-scale DWDSs in the US. Legionella as a dominant OP occurred in 93.8% of the 64 sampling events and had a mean density of 4.27 × 105 genome copies per liter. Legionella positively correlated with Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas, and total bacteria. Multiple regression with data from the four DWDSs showed that Legionella had significant correlations with total chlorine residual level, free ammonia concentration, and trihalomethane concentration. Therefore, Legionella is a promising indicator of water-based OPs, reflecting microbial water quality in chloraminated DWDSs. The OP concentrations had strong seasonal variations and peaked in winter and/or spring possibly because of reduced water usage (i.e., increased water stagnation or HRT) during cold seasons. The OP concentrations generally increased with HRT presumably because of disinfectant residual decay, indicating the importance of well-maintaining disinfectant residuals in DWDSs for OP control. The concentrations of Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas, and V. vermiformis were significantly associated with total chlorine residual concentration, free ammonia concentration, and pH and trihalomethane concentration, respectively. Overall, this study demonstrates how the significant spatiotemporal variations of OP concentrations in chloraminated DWDSs correlated with critical physicochemical water quality parameters such as disinfectant residual levels. This work also indicates that Legionella is a promising indicator of OPs and microbial water quality in chloraminated DWDSs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiqian Zhang
- Pegasus Technical Services, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Ian Struewing
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Jatin H Mistry
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 6, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - David G Wahman
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Jonathan Pressman
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Jingrang Lu
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
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17
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Topić Popović N, Kazazić SP, Bojanić K, Strunjak-Perović I, Čož-Rakovac R. Sample preparation and culture condition effects on MALDI-TOF MS identification of bacteria: A review. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2021. [PMID: 34642960 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is an excellent tool for bacterial identification. It allows high throughput, sensitive and specific applications in clinical diagnostics and environmental research. Currently, there is no optimal standardized protocol for sample preparation and culture conditions to profile bacteria. The performance of MALDI-TOF MS is affected by several variables, such as sample preparation, culture media and culture conditions, incubation time/growth stage, incubation temperature, high salt content, blood in the culture media, and others. This review thus aims to clarify why a uniformed protocol is not plausible, to assess the effects these factors have on MALDI-TOF MS identification score, and discuss possible optimizations for its methodology, in relation to specific bacterial representatives and strain requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalija Topić Popović
- Laboratory for Aquaculture Biotechnology, Division of Materials Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
- Centre of Excellence for Marine Bioprospecting-BioProCro, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Snježana P Kazazić
- Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry and Functional Proteomics, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Krunoslav Bojanić
- Laboratory for Aquaculture Biotechnology, Division of Materials Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
- Centre of Excellence for Marine Bioprospecting-BioProCro, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivančica Strunjak-Perović
- Laboratory for Aquaculture Biotechnology, Division of Materials Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
- Centre of Excellence for Marine Bioprospecting-BioProCro, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Rozelindra Čož-Rakovac
- Laboratory for Aquaculture Biotechnology, Division of Materials Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
- Centre of Excellence for Marine Bioprospecting-BioProCro, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
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18
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Tata A, Marzoli F, Massaro A, Passabì E, Bragolusi M, Negro A, Cristaudo I, Piro R, Belluco S. Assessing direct analysis in real-time mass spectrometry for the identification and serotyping of Legionella pneumophila. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 132:1479-1488. [PMID: 34543502 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The efficacy of ambient mass spectrometry to identify and serotype Legionella pneumophila was assessed. To this aim, isolated waterborne colonies were submitted to a rapid extraction method and analysed by direct analysis in real-time mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS). METHODS AND RESULTS The DART-HRMS profiles, coupled with partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), were first evaluated for their ability to differentiate Legionella spp. from other bacteria. The resultant classification model achieved an accuracy of 98.1% on validation. Capitalising on these encouraging results, DART-HRMS profiling was explored as an alternative approach for the identification of L. pneumophila sg. 1, L. pneumophila sg. 2-15 and L. non-pneumophila; therefore, a different PLS-DA classifier was built. When tested on a validation set, this second classifier reached an overall accuracy of 95.93%. It identified the harmful L. pneumophila sg. 1 with an impressive specificity (100%) and slightly lower sensitivity (91.7%), and similar performances were reached in the classification of L. pneumophila sg. 2-15 and L. non-pneumophila. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study show the DART-HMRS method has good accuracy, and it is an effective method for Legionella serogroup profiling. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY These preliminary findings could open a new avenue for the rapid identification and quick epidemiologic tracing of L. pneumophila, with a consequent improvement to risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Tata
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Laboratorio di Chimica Sperimentale, Vicenza, Italy
| | - Filippo Marzoli
- Department of Food Safety, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Andrea Massaro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Laboratorio di Chimica Sperimentale, Vicenza, Italy
| | - Eleonora Passabì
- Department of Food Safety, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Marco Bragolusi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Laboratorio di Chimica Sperimentale, Vicenza, Italy
| | - Alessandro Negro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Laboratorio di Chimica Sperimentale, Vicenza, Italy
| | - Ilaria Cristaudo
- Department of Food Safety, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Roberto Piro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Laboratorio di Chimica Sperimentale, Vicenza, Italy
| | - Simone Belluco
- Department of Food Safety, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
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19
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Modern Analytical Techniques for Detection of Bacteria in Surface and Wastewaters. SUSTAINABILITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/su13137229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Contamination of surface waters with pathogens as well as all diseases associated with such events are a significant concern worldwide. In recent decades, there has been a growing interest in developing analytical methods with good performance for the detection of this category of contaminants. The most important analytical methods applied for the determination of bacteria in waters are traditional ones (such as bacterial culturing methods, enzyme-linked immunoassay, polymerase chain reaction, and loop-mediated isothermal amplification) and advanced alternative methods (such as spectrometry, chromatography, capillary electrophoresis, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, and magnetic field-assisted and hyphenated techniques). In addition, optical and electrochemical sensors have gained much attention as essential alternatives for the conventional detection of bacteria. The large number of available methods have been materialized by many publications in this field aimed to ensure the control of water quality in water resources. This study represents a critical synthesis of the literature regarding the latest analytical methods covering comparative aspects of pathogen contamination of water resources. All these aspects are presented as representative examples, focusing on two important bacteria with essential implications on the health of the population, namely Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli.
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