The lipid composition of extracellular vesicles: applications in diagnostics and therapeutic delivery

Emerging roles of noncoding RNAs in cardiovascular pathophysiology

This review comprehensively examines the diverse roles of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) in the pathogenesis and treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD), focusing on microRNA (miRNA), long noncoding RNA (lncRNA), piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA), small-interfering RNA (siRNA), circular RNA (circRNA), and vesicle-associated RNAs. These ncRNAs are integral regulators of key cellular processes, including gene expression, inflammation, and fibrosis, and they hold great potential as both diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. The review highlights novel insights into how these RNA species, particularly miRNAs, lncRNAs, and piRNAs, contribute to various CVDs such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, and myocardial infarction. In addition, it explores the emerging role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in intercellular communication and their therapeutic potential in cardiovascular health. The review underscores the need for continued research into ncRNAs and RNA-based therapies, with a focus on advancing delivery systems and expanding personalized medicine approaches to improve cardiovascular outcomes.

Leveraging nature's nanocarriers: Translating insights from extracellular vesicles to biomimetic synthetic vesicles for biomedical applications

Naturally occurring extracellular vesicles (EVs) and synthetic nanoparticles like liposomes have revolutionized precision diagnostics and medicine. EVs excel in biocompatibility and cell targeting, while liposomes offer enhanced drug loading capacity and scalability. The clinical translation of EVs is hindered by challenges including low yield and heterogeneity, whereas liposomes face rapid immune clearance and limited targeting efficiency. To bridge these gaps, biomimetic synthetic vesicles (SVs) have emerged as innovative platforms, combining the advantageous properties of EVs and liposomes. This review emphasizes critical aspects of EV biology, such as mechanisms of EV-cell interaction and source-dependent functionalities in targeting, immune modulation, and tissue regeneration, informing biomimetic SV engineering. We reviewed a broad array of biomimetic SVs, with a focus on lipid bilayered vesicles functionalized with proteins. These include cell-derived nanovesicles, protein-functionalized liposomes, and hybrid vesicles. By addressing current challenges and highlighting opportunities, this review aims to advance biomimetic SVs for transformative biomedical applications.

Untargeted lipidomics reveals unique lipid signatures of extracellular vesicles from porcine colostrum and milk

Extracellular vesicles (EV) are membranous vesicles considered as significant players in cell-to-cell communication. Milk provides adequate nutrition, transfers immunity, and promotes neonatal development, and milk EV are suggested to play a crucial role in these processes. Milk samples were obtained on days 0, 7, and 14 after parturition from sows receiving either a standard diet (ω-6:ω-3 = 13:1) or a test diet enriched in ω-3 (ω-6:ω-3 = 4:1). EV were isolated using ultracentrifugation coupled with size exclusion chromatography, and characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis, transmission electron microscopy, and assessment of EV markers via Western blotting. The lipidome was determined following a liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry approach. Here, we show that different stages of lactation (colostrum vs mature milk) have a distinct extracellular vesicle lipidomic profile. The distinct lipid content can be further explored to understand and regulate milk EV functionalities and primordial for enabling their diagnostic and therapeutic potential.

Unraveling the Impact of TLR4 and Sex on Chronic Alcohol Consumption-Induced Lipidome Dysregulation in Extracellular Vesicles

The lipids that form extracellular vesicles (EVs) play critical structural and regulatory roles, and cutting-edge bioinformatics strategies have shown the ability to decipher lipid metabolism and related molecular mechanisms. We previously demonstrated that alcohol abuse induces an inflammatory immune response through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), leading to structural and cognitive dysfunction. This study evaluated how TLR4 and sex as variables (male/female) impact the lipidome of plasma-resident EVs after chronic alcohol exposure. Using a mouse model of chronic ethanol exposure in wild-type and TLR4-deficient mice, enrichment networks generated by LINEX2 highlighted significant ethanol-induced changes in the EV lipid substrate-product of enzyme reactions associated with glycerophospholipid metabolism. We also demonstrated ethanol-induced differences in Lipid Ontology enrichment analysis in EVs, focusing on terms related to lipid bilayer properties. A lipid abundance analysis revealed higher amounts of significant lipid subclasses in all experimental comparisons associated with inflammatory responses and EV biogenesis/secretion. These findings suggest that interrogating EV lipid abundance with a sensitive lipidomic-based strategy can provide deep insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying biological processes associated with sex, alcohol consumption, and TLR4 immune responses and open new avenues for biomarker identification and therapeutic development.

SHINE: SERS-based Hepatotoxicity detection using Inference from Nanoscale Extracellular vesicle content

Extracellular vesicles (EV) are becoming crucial tools in liquid biopsy, diagnostics, and therapeutic applications, yet their nanoscale characterization remains challenging. In this context, the detection of drug-induced liver injury, i.e., hepatotoxicity, through extracellular vesicle molecular content remains an unexplored frontier. To this end, we present a label-free surface-enhanced Raman (SERS) spectroscopy approach, which provides rapid EV content analysis under ten minutes and requires only 1.3 microliters of sample. Using hepatic cultures as a model, our platform captures distinct and reproducible EV molecular changes in response to acetaminophen-induced hepatoxicity. Our platform achieves exceptional accuracy with root mean squared error values as low as 3.80%, establishing strong correlations between EV spectra and conventional toxicity biomarkers. Unlike previous EV-SERS studies limited to vesicle identification and disease markers, this approach reveals EV drug-response signatures strongly correlated with conventional toxicity markers. These findings establish EVs as dynamic reporters of cellular drug responses and demonstrate use of SERS-based EV detection of hepatotoxicity.

Elevated Serum Levels of Acid Sphingomyelinase in Female Patients with Episodic and Chronic Migraine

Migraine is one of the most common neurological disorders and the second most disabling human condition. The molecular mechanisms of migraine have been linked to neuropeptide release, endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress and inflammatory processes. Acid sphingomyelinase (aSMase) is a secreted enzyme that leads to sphingomyelin degradation to produce ceramide. Its activity has been associated with several molecular processes involved in migraine. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aims to study the potential role of aSMase in patients with episodic and chronic migraine. In this cross-sectional pilot study, serum samples from female healthy controls (n = 23), episodic migraine (EM) patients (n = 31), and chronic migraine (CM) patients (n = 28) were studied. The total serum levels of aSMase were determined by ELISA. In addition, the serum levels of sphingomyelin (SM), dihydro-sphingomyelin (dhSM), ceramide (Cer), and dihydro-ceramide (dhCer) were determined by mass spectrometry as biomarkers involved in the main molecular pathways associated with aSMase. aSMase serum levels were found significantly elevated in both EM (3.62 ± 1.25 ng/mL) and CM (3.07 ± 0.95 ng/mL) compared with controls (1.58 ± 0.72 ng/mL) (p < 0.0001). ROC analysis showed an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.94 (95% CI: 0.89-0.99, p < 0.0001) and 0.90 (95% CI: 0.81-0.99, p < 0.0001) for EM and CM compared to controls, respectively. Regarding other biomarkers associated with aSMase's pathways, total SM serum levels were significantly decreased in both EM (173,534 ± 39,096 pmol/mL, p < 0.01) and CM (158,459 ± 40,010 pmol/mL, p < 0.0001) compared to the control subjects (219,721 ± 36,950 pmol/mL). Elevated serum levels of aSMase were found in EM and CM patients compared to the control subjects. The decreased SM levels found in both EM and CM indicate that aSMase activity plays a role in migraine. Therefore, aSMase may constitute a new therapeutic target in migraine that should be further investigated.

Extracellular vesicles and microRNAs in cancer progression

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as critical mediators of intercellular communication in cancer. These membranous structures, secreted by normal and cancerous cells, carry a cargo of bioactive molecules including microRNAs (miRNAs) that modulate various cellular processes. miRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that play pivotal roles in post-transcriptional gene regulation and have been implicated in cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. In cancer, tumor-derived EVs transport specific miRNAs to recipient cells, modulating tumorigenesis, growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Dysregulation of miRNA expression profiles within EVs contributes to the acquisition of cancer hallmarks that include increased proliferation, survival, and migration. EV miRNAs influence the tumor microenvironment, promoting immune evasion, remodeling the extracellular matrix, and establishing pre-metastatic niches. Understanding the complex interplay between EVs, miRNAs, and cancer holds significant promise for developing novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. This chapter provides insights into the role of EV-mediated miRNA signaling in cancer pathogenesis, highlighting its potential as a biomarker for cancer detection, prognosis, and treatment response assessment.

Extracellular vesicles in malaria: proteomics insights, in vitro and in vivo studies indicate the need for transitioning to natural human infections

Globally, an estimated 2.1 billion malaria cases and 11.7 million malaria deaths were averted in the period 2000-2022. Noticeably, despite effective control measurements, in 2022 there were an estimated 249 million malaria cases in 85 malaria-endemic countries and an increase of 5 million cases compared with 2021. Further understanding the biology, epidemiology, and pathogenesis of human malaria is therefore essential for achieving malaria elimination. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed nanoparticles pivotal in intercellular communication and secreted by all cell types. Here, we will review what is currently known about EVs in malaria, from biogenesis and cargo to molecular insights of pathophysiology. Of relevance, a meta-analysis of proteomics cargo, and comparisons between in vitro and in vivo human studies revealed striking differences with those few studies reported from patients. Thus, indicating the need for rigor standardization of methodologies and for transitioning to human infections to elucidate their physiological role. We conclude with a focus on translational aspects in diagnosis and vaccine development and highlight key gaps in the knowledge of EVs in malaria research.

Enhancing Gene Delivery to Breast Cancer with Highly Efficient siRNA Loading and pH-Responsive Small Extracellular Vesicles

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are promising nanocarriers for drug delivery to treat a wide range of diseases due to their natural origin and innate homing properties. However, suboptimal therapeutic effects, attributed to ineffective targeting, limited lysosomal escape, and insufficient delivery, remain challenges in effectively delivering therapeutic cargo. Despite advances in sEV-based drug delivery systems, conventional approaches need improvement to address low drug-loading efficiency and to develop surface functionalization techniques for precise targeting of cells of interest, all while preserving the membrane integrity of sEVs. We report an enhanced gene delivery system using multifunctional sEVs for highly efficient siRNA loading and delivery. The integration of chiral graphene quantum dots enhanced the loading capacity while preserving the structural integrity of the sEVs. Additionally, lysosomal escape is facilitated by functionalizing sEVs with pH-responsive peptides, fully harnessing the inherent homing effect of sEVs for targeted and precise delivery. These sEVs achieved a 1.74-fold increase in cytosolic cargo delivery compared to unmodified sEVs, resulting in substantial gene silencing of around 73%. Our approach has significant potential to advance sEV-based gene delivery in order to accelerate clinical progress.

Gold nanomaterials capped with bovine serum albumin for cell and extracellular vesicle imaging

Bovine serum albumin-capped gold nanoclusters (AuNC@BSA) are ionic, ultra-small, and eco-friendly nanomaterials that exhibit red fluorescence emission. Upon modification, these nanomaterials can serve as imaging probes with multimodal functionality. Owing to their nanoscale properties, AuNC@BSA-based nanomaterials can be readily endocytosed by cells for imaging. With the increasing interest in cell therapy, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have attracted considerable attention from researchers; however, effective methods for imaging EVs remain limited. Although several studies have explored imaging strategies for cells and EVs using compounds, nuclear pharmaceuticals, nanoparticles, or genetic constructs, the use of AuNC@BSA-based nanomaterials for labeling EVs and their parental cells has rarely been discussed, with even less attention paid to their multimodal potential. To address this gap, we utilized three types of AuNC@BSA-based derivatives: AuNC@BSA, AuNC@BSA-Gd, and AuNC@BSA-Gd-I. Our findings demonstrate that these derivatives can effectively label both cells and EVs using a simple direct labeling approach, which is particularly notable for EVs, as they typically require more complex labeling procedures. Furthermore, the multimodal potential of labeled cells and EVs was evaluated, revealing their capabilities for multimodal imaging. In summary, this study presents an effective strategy for labeling EVs and their parental cells using multimodal nanomaterials. These findings will contribute to accelerating the development of drug delivery systems, cell- and EV-based therapies, and advanced imaging strategies.

Evaluation of induced pluripotent stem cell differentiation into neural progenitor cell using Raman spectra derived from extracellular vesicles in culture supernatants

Non-invasive cell culture monitoring technology is crucial to improve the manufacturing efficiency of cell products. We have found that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are secreted into the culture supernatants in the differentiation process from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to dopaminergic progenitor cells, and that the composition of EVs changes in accordance with the differentiation processes. In this study, we hypothesized that it is possible to evaluate the cultured cellular states by detecting compositional changes of EVs secreted from cultured cells with label-free Raman spectroscopy in a non-invasive manner. Therefore, Raman signal analysis derived from EV fractions isolated from culture supernatants throughout the differentiation process was conducted. iPSCs cultures were simultaneously implemented under a standard condition (control) and an artificial deviation condition inducing reductions in pluripotency by depleting FGF2 in culture medium (-FGF2), which is indispensable for maintaining the pluripotency. Subsequently, the differentiation step was conducted for each iPSCs culture under the same condition. As a result, it was found that under -FGF2, the expression level of the pluripotency marker NANOG decreased compared to that of the control and correlated with the identification results based on Raman signals with a correlation coefficient of 0.77. Lipid-derived Raman signals were extracted as identification factors, suggesting that changes in the lipid component of EV occur depending on the cellular states. From the above, we have found that the change in composition of EVs in the culture supernatant by detecting Raman signals would be a monitoring index of the cellular state of differentiation and pluripotency.

The Potential for Extracellular Vesicles in Nanomedicine: A Review of Recent Advancements and Challenges Ahead

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as promising tools in diagnostics and therapy for chronic diseases, including cancer and Alzheimer's. Small EVs, also called exosomes, are lipid-bound particles (≈30-150 nm) that play a role in healthy and pathophysiological interactions, including intercellular communication, by transporting bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Their ability to cross biological barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier, makes them ideal candidates for targeted therapeutic interventions. In the context of chronic diseases, exosomes can be engineered to deliver active agents, including small molecules and siRNAs to specific target cells, providing a novel approach to precision medicine. Moreover, exosomes show great promise as repositories for diagnostic biomarkers. Their cargo can reflect the physiological and pathological status of the parent cells, making them valuable indicators of disease progression and response to treatment. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the application of exosomes in four chronic diseases: cancer, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, and orthopedic disease, which significantly impact global public health due to their high prevalence and associated morbidity and mortality rates. Furthermore, the potential of exosomes as valuable tools for theranostics and disease management is highlighted. Finally, the challenges associated with exosomes and their demonstrated potential for advancing future nanomedicine applications are discussed.

Leishmania amazonensis-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) induce neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)

Neutrophils interact with Leishmania when the sandfly vector inoculates these parasites in the host with saliva and promastigotes-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs). It has been shown that this co-injection induces inflammation and exacerbates leishmaniasis lesions. EVs are a heterogeneous group of vesicles released by cells that play a crucial role in intercellular communication. Neutrophils are among the first cells to interact with the parasites and release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that ensnare and kill the promastigotes. Here, we show that Leishmania amazonensis EVs induce NET formation and identify molecular mechanisms involved. We showed the requirement of neutrophils' toll-like receptors for EVs-induced NET. EVs carrying the virulence factors lipophosphoglycan and the zinc metalloproteases were endocytosed by some neutrophils and snared by NETs. EVs-induced NET formation required reactive oxygen species, myeloperoxidase, elastase, peptidyl arginine deiminase, and Ca++. The proteomic analysis of the EVs cargo revealed 1,189 proteins; the 100 most abundant identified comprised some known Leishmania virulent factors. Importantly, L. amazonensis EVs-induced NETs lead to the killing of promastigotes and could participate in the exacerbated inflammatory response induced by the EVs, which may play a role in the pathogenesis process.

Engineering extracellular vesicles for targeted therapeutics in cardiovascular disease

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized particles secreted by cells that play crucial roles in intercellular communication, especially in the context of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). These vesicles carry complex cargo, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, that reflects the physiological or pathological state of their cells of origin. Multiomics analysis of cell-derived EVs has provided valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying CVDs by identifying specific proteins and EV-bound targets involved in disease progression. Recent studies have demonstrated that engineered EVs, which are designed to carry specific therapeutic molecules or modified to enhance their targeting capabilities, hold promise for treating CVDs. Analysis of the EV proteome has been instrumental in identifying key proteins that can be targeted or modulated within these engineered vesicles. For example, proteins involved in inflammation, thrombosis, and cardiac remodeling have been identified as potential therapeutic targets. Furthermore, the engineering of EVs to increase their delivery to specific tissues, such as the myocardium, or to modulate their immunogenicity and therapeutic efficacy is an emerging area of research. By leveraging the insights gained from multiomics analyses, researchers are developing EV-based therapies that can selectively target pathological processes in CVDs, offering a novel and potentially more effective treatment strategy. This review integrates the core findings from EV multiomics analysis in the context of CVDs and highlights the potential of engineered EVs in therapeutic applications.

Sparstolonin B potentiates the antitumor activity of nanovesicle-loaded drugs by suppressing the phagocytosis of macrophages in vivo

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) and extruded nanovesicles (ENVs) are promising nanovesicles (NVs) for drug delivery. However, the application of these NVs is strongly hindered by their short half-life in the circulation. Macrophages (Mφs) in the liver and spleen contribute to the rapid depletion of NVs, but the underlying mechanism is unclear.

METHODS

By collecting the supernatant of PANC-1 cells and squeezing PANC-1 cells, EVs and ENVs derived from PANC-1 cells were prepared via ultracentrifugation. NVs were subsequently identified via western blot, particle size measurement, and electron microscopy. The distribution of NVs in mouse bodies was observed with a live animal imaging system. Liver Mφs were extracted and isolated after NVs were administered, and transcriptome profiling was applied to determine differentially expressed genes (DEGs). siRNAs targeting interested genes were designed and synthesized. In vitro experiments, Mφs were transfected with siRNA or treated with the corresponding inhibitor, after which NV uptake was recorded. Doxorubicin (DOX) was encapsulated in ENVs using an ultrasound method. PANC-1 cell-derived tumors were established in nude mice in vivo, inhibitor pretreatment or no treatment was administered before intravenous injection of ENVs-DOX, and the therapeutic efficacy of ENVs-DOX was evaluated.

RESULTS

NVs derived from PANC-1 cells were first prepared and identified. After intravenous injection, most NVs were engulfed by Mφs in the liver and spleen. Seven genes of interest were selected via transcriptome sequencing and validated via RT‒PCR. These results confirmed that the TLR2 signaling pathway is responsible for phagocytosis. siTLR2 and its inhibitor sparstolonin B (SpB) significantly inhibited the internalization of NVs by Mφs and downregulated the activity of the TLR2 pathway. The accumulation of ENVs-DOX in the liver was inhibited in vivo by pretreatment with SpB 40 min before intravenous injection, ultimately delaying tumor progression.

CONCLUSION

The TLR2 pathway plays a crucial role in the sequestration of NVs by Mφs. A novel antiphagocytic strategy in which pretreatment of mice with SpB inhibits the clearance of NVs and prolongs their half-life in vivo, thereby improving delivery efficiency, was identified.

TGF-β regulates the release of breast cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles and the sorting of their protein cargo by downregulating RAB27B expression

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important mediators of intercellular communication in the tumour microenvironment. The cytokine transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) facilitates cancer progression via EVs secreted by cancer cells, which act on recipient cells in the tumour microenvironment. However, the mechanisms of how TGF-β affects cancer cell EV release and composition are incompletely understood. Here, we systematically investigate the effects of TGF-β on the release and protein composition of EVs from breast cancer cells. TGF-β suppresses the transcription of RAB27B mediated by SMAD3 and thereby hampers EV release. Using click chemistry and quantitative proteomics, we found that TGF-β increases the quantity of protein cargo and changes the composition of EVs by downregulating RAB27B expression. The recomposed EVs, induced by TGF-β or RAB27B depletion, inhibit CD8+ T cell-mediated breast cancer killing. Our findings reveal the critical roles of TGF-β and RAB27B in cancer development by regulating EV release and composition and thus provide potential targets to improve cancer immunotherapy.

Therapeutic and pharmacological applications of extracellular vesicles and lipoproteins

In recent years, various approaches have been undertaken to eliminate lipoproteins co-isolated with extracellular vesicles, as they were initially regarded as contaminating entities. However, novel discoveries are reshaping our perspective. In body fluids, these distinct particles not only co-exist, but also interactions between them are likely to occur. Extracellular vesicles and lipoproteins can associate with each other, share cargo, influence each other's functions, and jointly have a role in the pathomechanisms of diseases. Additionally, their association carries important implications for therapeutic and pharmacological aspects of lipid-lowering strategies. Extracellular vesicles and lipoprotein particles may have roles in the elimination of each other from the circulation. The objective of this minireview is to delve into these aspects. Here, we show that under certain physiological and pathological conditions, extracellular vesicles and lipoproteins are 'partners' rather than 'strangers' or 'rivals'.

Monitoring concentration and lipid signature of plasma extracellular vesicles from HR+ metastatic breast cancer patients under CDK4/6 inhibitors treatment

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived small membrane structures that transport various molecules. They have emerged as potential circulating biomarkers for monitoring responses to cancer therapies. This study aimed to comprehensively characterize plasma-carried EVs in hormone receptor-positive (HR+) metastatic breast cancer (MBC) patients treated with first-line CDK4/6 inhibitors (iCDK4/6) combined with endocrine therapy. MBC patients were classified into three groups based on their response to therapy: resistant, intermediate or sensitive. In a prospective cohort, we monitored the concentration of circulating EVs, analyzed their lipid signature and correlated these factors with treatment response. To facilitate the translation of EV research to clinical practice, we established a three-step procedure: (1) EVs were isolated from plasma using semi-automatized size exclusion chromatography (SEC); (2) EV concentration, termed vesiclemia, was determined by drop counting via interferometric light microscopy (ILM); and (3) EV lipid composition was analyzed by mass spectrometry. ILM-based vesiclemia values were highly fluctuating upon iCDK4/6 treatment, while early increase associated with accelerated progression. Of note, vesiclemia remained a steady parameter over a 1-year period in age-matched healthy women. Additionally, analysis of the EV cargo unveiled a distinct sphingolipid profile, characterized by increased levels of ceramides and sphingomyelins in resistant patients within the first 2 months of treatment. Based on 16 sphingolipid species, sensitive and resistant patients were correctly classified with an overall accuracy of 82%. This specific sphingolipid pattern was exclusively discernible within EVs, and not in plasma, highlighting the significance of EVs in the early prediction of individual responses to iCDK4/6 and disease progression. Overall, this study provides insights of the longitudinal characterization of plasma-borne EVs in both a healthy group and HR+ MBC patients under iCDK4/6 therapies. Combined vesiclemia and EV sphingolipid profile emphasize the promising potential of EVs as non-invasive biomarkers for monitoring early treatment response.

Development of complementary analytical methods to characterize extracellular vesicles

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved in intercellular communication and various biological processes. They hold clinical promise for the diagnosis and management of a wide range of pathologies, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases and degenerative diseases, and are of interest as regenerative therapies. Understanding the complex structure of these EVs is essential to perceive the current challenges associated with their analysis and characterization. Today, challenges remain in terms of access to high-yield, high-purity isolation methods, as well as analytical methods for characterizing and controlling the quality of these products for clinical use.

RESULTS

We isolated EVs from the same immortalized human cell culture supernatant using two commonly used approaches, namely differential ultracentrifugation and membrane affinity. Then we evaluated EV morphology, size, zeta potential, particle and protein content, as well as protein identity using cryogenic electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, asymmetric field flow fractionation (AF4) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) coupled to multi angle light scattering, bicinchoninic acid assay, electrophoretic light scattering, western blotting and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Compared to membrane affinity isolation, dUC is a more efficient isolation process for obtaining particles with the characteristics expected for EVs and more specifically for exosomes. To validate an isolation process, cryogenic electron microscopy is essential to confirm vesicles with membranes. High resolution mass spectrometry is powerful for understanding the mechanism of action of vesicles. Separative methods, such as AF4 and SEC, are interesting for separating vesicle subpopulations and contaminants.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study provides a critical assessment of eight different techniques for analyzing EVs, some of which are mandatory for in-depth characterization and deciphering, while others are more appropriate for routine analysis, once the production and isolation process has been validated. The strengths and limitations of the different approaches used are highlighted.

Discovering the role of microRNAs and exosomal microRNAs in chest and pulmonary diseases: a spotlight on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive respiratory condition and ranks as the fourth leading cause of mortality worldwide. Despite extensive research efforts, a reliable diagnostic or prognostic tool for COPD remains elusive. The identification of novel biomarkers may facilitate improved therapeutic strategies for patients suffering from this debilitating disease. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), which are small non-coding RNA molecules, have emerged as promising candidates for the prediction and diagnosis of COPD. Studies have demonstrated that dysregulation of miRNAs influences critical cellular and molecular pathways, including Notch, Wnt, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, transforming growth factor, Kras, and Smad, which may contribute to the pathogenesis of COPD. Extracellular vesicles, particularly exosomes, merit further investigation due to their capacity to transport various biomolecules such as mRNAs, miRNAs, and proteins between cells. This intercellular communication can significantly impact the progression and severity of COPD by modulating signaling pathways in recipient cells. A deeper exploration of circulating miRNAs and the content of extracellular vesicles may lead to the discovery of novel diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, ultimately enhancing the management of COPD. The current review focus on the pathogenic role of miRNAs and their exosomal counterparts in chest and respiratory diseases, centering COPD.

Comment on "Extracellular Vesicles Slow Down Aβ(1-42) Aggregation by Interfering with the Amyloid Fibril Elongation Step"

Halipi et al. explored the impact of extracellular vesicles (EVs) on amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregation. They concluded that EVs reduce Aβ aggregation, as seen by shorter and thicker fibrils. While we agree with the complex role of EVs in Alzheimer's disease, we are sceptical of the claim that EVs slow down Aβ aggregation, noting missing key references. Previous literature rather suggests that EVs (derived from neuronal cell lines) accelerate the process of Aβ fibrillation and plaque formation. Halipi et al.'s findings may be skewed due to the lack of essential neuronally expressed Aβ-binding partners, like the prion protein (PrPC) in their EV samples. The commentary, in the light of included original experiments and cited literature, suggests that membrane proteins like PrPC are crucial to fully understand the role of EVs in Aβ aggregation, and Halipi et al.'s conclusions should be reexamined in light of these factors.

The Yin and Yang of Microglia-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in CNS Injury and Diseases

Microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), play a crucial role in maintaining neural homeostasis but can also contribute to disease and injury when this state is disrupted or conversely play a pivotal role in neurorepair. One way that microglia exert their effects is through the secretion of small vesicles, microglia-derived exosomes (MGEVs). Exosomes facilitate intercellular communication through transported cargoes of proteins, lipids, RNA, and other bioactive molecules that can alter the behavior of the cells that internalize them. Under normal physiological conditions, MGEVs are essential to homeostasis, whereas the dysregulation of their production and/or alterations in their cargoes have been implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), spinal cord injury (SCI), and traumatic brain injury (TBI). In contrast, MGEVs may also offer therapeutic potential by reversing inflammation or being amenable to engineering for the delivery of beneficial biologics or drugs. The effects of MGEVs are determined by the phenotypic state of the parent microglia. Exosomes from anti-inflammatory or pro-regenerative microglia support neurorepair and cell survival by delivering neurotrophic factors, anti-inflammatory mediators, and molecular chaperones. Further, MGEVs can also deliver components like mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and proteins to damaged neurons to enhance cellular metabolism and resilience. MGEVs derived from pro-inflammatory microglia can have detrimental effects on neural health. Their cargo often contains pro-inflammatory cytokines, molecules involved in oxidative stress, and neurotoxic proteins, which can exacerbate neuroinflammation, contribute to neuronal damage, and impair synaptic function, hindering neurorepair processes. The role of MGEVs in neurodegeneration and injury-whether beneficial or harmful-largely depends on how they modulate inflammation through the pro- and anti-inflammatory factors in their cargo, including cytokines and microRNAs. In addition, through the propagation of pathological proteins, such as amyloid-beta and alpha-synuclein, MGEVs can also contribute to disease progression in disorders such as AD and PD, or by the transfer of apoptotic or necrotic factors, they can induce neuron toxicity or trigger glial scarring during neurological injury. In this review, we have provided a comprehensive and up-to-date understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the multifaceted role of MGEVs in neurological injury and disease. In particular, the role that specific exosome cargoes play in various pathological conditions, either in disease progression or recovery, will be discussed. The therapeutic potential of MGEVs has been highlighted including potential engineering methodologies that have been employed to alter their cargoes or cell-selective targeting. Understanding the factors that influence the balance between beneficial and detrimental exosome signaling in the CNS is crucial for developing new therapeutic strategies for neurodegenerative diseases and neurotrauma.

Untargeted metabolomic profiling of small extracellular vesicles reveals potential new biomarkers for triple negative breast cancer

INTRODUCTION

Breast Cancer (BC) is one of the most diagnosed malignancies among women and the second leading cause of cancer related death in North America. Triple Negative BC (TNBC), one of the most severe subtypes of BC, is extremely aggressive and has a higher chance of occurrence in women under 50 years of age. Due to a lack of regular mammographic testing in women under 50, many individuals with TNBC are diagnosed late which can decrease their survival rate. Currently, liquid biopsy is being investigated as a potentially less-invasive alternative to traditional breast tissue biopsy, but this approach is not completely reliable. Blood contains extracellular vesicles (EVs), which carry biomolecular cargo and play a role in BC progression and metastasis. Examination of small EVs could potentially yield metabolite biomarkers for early BC diagnosis.

OBJECTIVE

We aim to study metabolites in small EVs to find biomarkers for BC diagnosis.

METHODS

In this work, an untargeted nano-LC MS/MS metabolomics approach was used to analyze metabolites from small EVs derived from metastatic MDA-MB-231 and compare it with a non-cancerous MCF10A cell line.

RESULTS

Two metabolites, LysoPC 22:6/0:0 and N-acetyl-L-Phenylalanine, unique to sEVs of MDA-MB-231, were identified, validated, and proposed as potential BC biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

Metabolites from sEVs may be used for BC diagnosis.

Harnessing exosomes for advanced osteoarthritis therapy

Exosomes are nanosized, lipid membrane vesicles secreted by cells, facilitating intercellular communication by transferring cargo from parent to recipient cells. This capability enables biological crosstalk across multiple tissues and cells. Extensive research has been conducted on their role in the pathogenesis of degenerative musculoskeletal diseases such as osteoarthritis (OA), a chronic and painful joint disease that particularly affects cartilage. Currently, no effective treatment exists for OA. Given that exosomes naturally modulate synovial joint inflammation and facilitate cartilage matrix synthesis, they are promising candidates as next generation nanocarriers for OA therapy. Recent advancements have focused on engineering exosomes through endogenous and exogenous approaches to enhance their joint retention, cartilage and chondrocyte targeting properties, and therapeutic content enrichment, further increasing their potential for OA drug delivery. Notably, charge-reversed exosomes that utilize electrostatic binding interactions with cartilage anionic aggrecan glycosaminoglycans have demonstrated the ability to penetrate the full thickness of early-stage arthritic cartilage tissue following intra-articular administration, maximizing their therapeutic potential. These exosomes offer a non-viral, naturally derived, cell-free carrier for OA drug and gene delivery applications. Efforts to standardize exosome harvest, engineering, and property characterization methods, along with scaling up production, will facilitate more efficient and rapid clinical translation. This article reviews the current state-of-the-art, explores opportunities for exosomes as OA therapeutics, and identifies potential challenges in their clinical translation.

Harnessing Lactobacillus reuteri-Derived Extracellular Vesicles for Multifaceted Cancer Treatment

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as valuable biological materials for treating intractable diseases. Extensive studies are conducted on EVs derived from various cellular sources. In this study, EVs derived from Lactobacillus reuteri (L. reuteri), a probiotic, exhibit remarkable cancer therapeutic efficacy when administered orally is reported. These L. reuteri-derived EVs (REVs) demonstrate stability in the gastrointestinal tract and exert significant anti-tumor effects. Using A549 cells and murine models, we confirmed that REVs mediate their therapeutic effects by modulating apoptotic signaling pathways. Furthermore, the combination of REV with drugs enhances tumor ablation and induces immunogenic cell death. In a mouse model, oral administration of REVs encapsulating indocyanine green followed by photothermal therapy led to complete tumor elimination within 32 days. REVs represent a promising biological therapeutic platform for cancer treatment, either independently or in combination with other therapies, depending on the treatment objectives.

Prospects and Current Challenges of Extracellular Vesicle-Based Biomarkers in Cancer

Cancer continues to impose a substantial global health burden, particularly among the elderly, where the ongoing global demographic shift towards an ageing population underscores the growing need for early cancer detection. This is essential for enabling personalised cancer care and optimised treatment throughout the disease course to effectively mitigate the increasing societal impact of cancer. Liquid biopsy has emerged as a promising strategy for cancer diagnosis and treatment monitoring, offering a minimally invasive method for the isolation and molecular profiling of circulating tumour-derived components. The expansion of the liquid biopsy approach to include the detection of tumour-derived extracellular vesicles (tdEVs) holds significant therapeutic opportunity. Evidence suggests that tdEVs carry cargo reflecting the contents of their cell-of-origin and are abundant within the blood, exhibiting superior stability compared to non-encapsulated tumour-derived material, such as circulating tumour nucleic acids and proteins. However, despite theoretical promise, several obstacles hinder the translation of extracellular vesicle-based cancer biomarkers into clinical practice. This critical review assesses the current prospects and challenges facing the adoption of tdEV biomarkers in clinical practice, offering insights into future directions and proposing strategies to overcome translational barriers. By addressing these issues, EV-based liquid biopsy approaches could revolutionise cancer diagnostics and management.

Prospects and challenges of tissue-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are considered a vital component of cell-to-cell communication and represent a new frontier in diagnostics and a means to identify pathways for therapeutic intervention. Recently, studies have revealed the importance of tissue-derived EVs (Ti-EVs), which are EVs present in the interstitial spaces between cells, as they better represent the underlying physiology of complex, multicellular tissue microenvironments in biology and disease. EVs are native, lipid bilayer membraned nano-sized particles produced by all cells that are packaged with varied functional biomolecules including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. They are implicated in short- and long-range cellular communication and may elicit functional responses in recipient cells. To date, studies have often utilized cultured cells or biological fluids as a source for EVs that do not capture local molecular signatures of the tissue microenvironment. Recent work utilizing Ti-EVs has elucidated novel biomarkers for disease and provided insights into disease mechanisms that may lead to the development of novel therapeutic agents. Still, there are considerable challenges facing current studies. This review explores the vast potential and unique challenges for Ti-EV research and provides considerations for future studies that seek to advance this exciting field.

Unveiling Invisible Extracellular Vesicles: Cutting-Edge Technologies for Their in Vivo Visualization

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), nanosized lipid bilayer vesicles released by nearly all types of cells, play pivotal roles as intercellular signaling mediators with diverse biological activities. Their adaptability has attracted interest in exploring their role as disease biomarker theranostics. However, the in vivo biodistribution and pharmacokinetic profiles of EVs, particularly following administration into living subjects, remain unclear. Thus, in vivo imaging is vital to enhance our understanding of the homing and retention patterns, blood and tissue half-life, and excretion pathways of exogenous EVs, thereby advancing real-time monitoring within biological systems and their therapeutic applications. This review examines state-of-the-art methods including EV labeling with various agents, including optical imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, and nuclear imaging. The strengths and weaknesses of each technique are comprehensively explored, emphasizing their clinical translation. Despite the potential of EVs as cancer theranostics, achieving a thorough understanding of their in vivo behavior is challenging. This review highlights the urgency of addressing current questions in the biology and therapeutic applications of EVs. It underscores the need for continued research to unravel the complexities surrounding EVs and their potential clinical implications. By identifying these challenges, this review contributes to ongoing efforts to optimize EV imaging techniques for clinical use. Ultimately, bridging the gap between research advancements and clinical applications will facilitate the integration of EV-based theranostics, marking a crucial step toward harnessing the full potential of EVs in medical practice.

Extracellular Vesicle Preparation and Analysis: A State-of-the-Art Review

In recent decades, research on Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) has gained prominence in the life sciences due to their critical roles in both health and disease states, offering promising applications in disease diagnosis, drug delivery, and therapy. However, their inherent heterogeneity and complex origins pose significant challenges to their preparation, analysis, and subsequent clinical application. This review is structured to provide an overview of the biogenesis, composition, and various sources of EVs, thereby laying the groundwork for a detailed discussion of contemporary techniques for their preparation and analysis. Particular focus is given to state-of-the-art technologies that employ both microfluidic and non-microfluidic platforms for EV processing. Furthermore, this discourse extends into innovative approaches that incorporate artificial intelligence and cutting-edge electrochemical sensors, with a particular emphasis on single EV analysis. This review proposes current challenges and outlines prospective avenues for future research. The objective is to motivate researchers to innovate and expand methods for the preparation and analysis of EVs, fully unlocking their biomedical potential.

Proteomics profiling of extracellular vesicle for identification of potential biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease: A comprehensive review

The intricate origins and diverse symptoms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pose significant challenges for both diagnosis and treatment. Exosomes and microvesicles, which carry disease-specific cargo from a variety of central nervous system cell types, have emerged as promising reservoirs of biomarkers for AD. Research on the screening of possible biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease using proteomic profiling of EVs is systematically reviewed in this comprehensive review. We highlight key methodologies employed in EV isolation, characterization, and proteomic analysis, elucidating their advantages and limitations. Furthermore, we summarize the evolving landscape of EV-associated biomarkers implicated in AD pathogenesis, including proteins involved in amyloid-beta metabolism, tau phosphorylation, neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, and neuronal injury. The literature review highlights the necessity for robust validation strategies and standardized protocols to effectively transition EV-based biomarkers into clinical use. In the concluding section, this review delves into potential future avenues and technological advancements pivotal in crafting EV-derived biomarkers applicable to AD diagnostics and prognostics. This review contributes to our comprehension of AD pathology and the advancement of precision medicine in neurodegenerative diseases, hinting at a promising era in AD precision medicine.

Exosomal microRNAs in Parkinson's disease: insights into biomarker potential and disease pathology

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative condition primarily affecting the elderly population. Despite its high incidence in aged individuals, there are no reliable blood-based biomarkers for clinical diagnosis of PD and early screening of susceptible individuals. Recent studies have revealed the significance of exosomes in mediating cell-to-cell communications by transferring bioactive molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids (including miRNAs), lipids, and metabolites, between cells. Due to their ability to carry diverse molecular cargo and their involvement in various physiological and pathological processes, exosomes have gained significant attention as potential disease biomarkers. Notably, exosomes have the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, and as a result, they can be found in circulating body fluids, including cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), serum, and plasma. Therefore, the identification of PD-specific exosomes in blood samples could be a promising avenue with biomarker potential for advancing clinical diagnosis and planning therapeutic strategies. This review highlights the current understanding of exosomal miRNAs in PD pathology, emphasising their potential for clinical utility as biomarkers even though several challenges may have to be overcome to precisely utilize exosomal miRNAs as biomarkers specific to PD.

Bioactive lipids in the skin barrier mediate its functionality in health and disease

Our skin protects us from external threats including ultraviolet radiation, pathogens and chemicals, and prevents excessive trans-epidermal water loss. These varied activities are reliant on a vast array of lipids, many of which are unique to skin, and that support physical, microbiological and immunological barriers. The cutaneous physical barrier is dependent on a specific lipid matrix that surrounds terminally-differentiated keratinocytes in the stratum corneum. Sebum- and keratinocyte-derived lipids cover the skin's surface and support and regulate the skin microbiota. Meanwhile, lipids signal between resident and infiltrating cutaneous immune cells, driving inflammation and its resolution in response to pathogens and other threats. Lipids of particular importance include ceramides, which are crucial for stratum corneum lipid matrix formation and therefore physical barrier functionality, fatty acids, which contribute to the acidic pH of the skin surface and regulate the microbiota, as well as the stratum corneum lipid matrix, and bioactive metabolites of these fatty acids, involved in cell signalling, inflammation, and numerous other cutaneous processes. These diverse and complex lipids maintain homeostasis in healthy skin, and are implicated in many cutaneous diseases, as well as unrelated systemic conditions with skin manifestations, and processes such as ageing. Lipids also contribute to the gut-skin axis, signalling between the two barrier sites. Therefore, skin lipids provide a valuable resource for exploration of healthy cutaneous processes, local and systemic disease development and progression, and accessible biomarker discovery for systemic disease, as well as an opportunity to fully understand the relationship between the host and the skin microbiota. Investigation of skin lipids could provide diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, and help identify new targets for interventions. Development and improvement of existing in vitro and in silico approaches to explore the cutaneous lipidome, as well as advances in skin lipidomics technologies, will facilitate ongoing progress in skin lipid research.

Knowledge mapping of exosomes in prostate cancer from 2003 to 2022: a bibliometric analysis

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer (PCa) is highly prevalent among males worldwide. The investigation of exosomes in PCa has emerged as a dynamic and important research area. To visually depict the prominent research areas and evolutionary patterns of exosomes in PCa, we performed a comprehensive analysis via bibliometric methods.

METHODS

Studies were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection. CiteSpace, VOSviewers, and the R package "bibliometrix" were employed to analyze the relationships and collaborations among countries/regions, organizations, authors, journals, references, and keywords.

RESULTS

Over the past 20 years (2003-2022), 995 literatures on exosomes in PCa have been collected. The findings indicate a consistent upward trend in annual publications with the United States being the leading contributor. Cancers is widely recognized as the most prominent journal in this area. In total, 5936 authors have contributed to these publications, with Alicia Llorente being the most prolific. The primary keywords associated with research hotspots include "liquid biopsy", "identification", "growth", "microRNAs", and "tumor-derived exosomes".

CONCLUSION

Our analysis reveals that investigating the intrinsic mechanisms of exosomes in PCa pathogenesis and exploring the potential of exosomes as biomarkers of PCa constitute the principal focal points in this domain of research.

Engineering Exosomes for Therapeutic Applications: Decoding Biogenesis, Content Modification, and Cargo Loading Strategies

Exosomes emerge from endosomal invagination and range in size from 30 to 200 nm. Exosomes contain diverse proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which can indicate the state of various physiological and pathological processes. Studies have revealed the remarkable clinical potential of exosomes in diagnosing and prognosing multiple diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and neurodegenerative conditions. Exosomes also have the potential to be engineered and deliver their cargo to a specific target. However, further advancements are imperative to optimize exosomes' diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities for practical implementation in clinical settings. This review highlights exosomes' diagnostic and therapeutic applications, emphasizing their engineering through simple incubation, biological, and click chemistry techniques. Additionally, the loading of therapeutic agents onto exosomes, utilizing passive and active strategies, and exploring hybrid and artificial exosomes are discussed.

Prostate cancer-derived extracellular vesicles metabolic biomarkers: Emerging roles for diagnosis and prognosis

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a global health concern, ranking as the most common cancer among men in Western countries. Traditional diagnostic methods are invasive with adverse effects on patients. Due to the heterogeneous nature of PCa and their multifocality, tissue biopsies often yield false-negative results. To address these challenges, researchers are exploring innovative approaches, particularly in the realms of proteomics and metabolomics, to identify more reliable biomarkers and improve PCa diagnosis. Liquid biopsy (LB) has emerged as a promising non-invasive strategy for PCa early detection, biopsy selection, active surveillance for low-risk cases, and post-treatment and progression monitoring. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bilayer nanovesicles released by all cell types and play an important role in intercellular communication. EVs have garnered attention as a valuable biomarker resource in LB for PCa-specific biomarkers, enhancing diagnosis, prognostication, and treatment guidance. Metabolomics provides insight into the body's metabolic response to both internal and external stimuli, offering quantitative measurements of biochemical alterations. It excels at detecting non-genetic influences, aiding in the discovery of more accurate cancer biomarkers for early detection and disease progression monitoring. This review delves into the potential of EVs as a resource for LB in PCa across various clinical applications. It also explores cancer-related metabolic biomarkers, both within and outside EVs in PCa, and summarises previous metabolomic findings in PCa diagnosis and risk assessment. Finally, the article addresses the challenges and future directions in the evolving field of EV-based metabolomic analysis, offering a comprehensive overview of its potential in advancing PCa management.

Extracellular Vesicles Secreted by Adipose Tissue during Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Influence Reverse Cholesterol Transport-Related Gene Expression in Human Macrophages

Obesity is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Adipose tissue (AT) extracellular vesicles (EVs) could play a role in obesity and T2DM associated CVD progression via the influence of their specific cargo on gene expression in recipient cells. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of AT EVs of patients with obesity with/without T2DM on reverse cholesterol transport (RCT)-related gene expression in human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) from healthy donors. AT EVs were obtained after ex vivo cultivation of visceral and subcutaneous AT (VAT and SAT, respectively). ABCA1, ABCG1, PPARG, LXRβ (NR1H2), and LXRα (NR1H3) mRNA levels in MDMs as well as in origine AT were determined by a real-time PCR. T2DM VAT and SAT EVs induced ABCG1 gene expression whereas LXRα and PPARG mRNA levels were simultaneously downregulated. PPARG mRNA levels also decreased in the presence of VAT EVs of obese patients without T2DM. In contrast ABCA1 and LXRβ mRNA levels tended to increase with the addition of obese AT EVs. Thus, AT EVs can influence RCT gene expression in MDMs during obesity, and the effects are dependent on T2DM status.

Small extracellular vesicles: Roles and clinical application in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is a significant health problem in the United States. It is remarkably heterogenous, ranging from slow growing disease amenable to active surveillance to highly aggressive forms requiring active treatments. Therefore, being able to precisely determine the nature of disease and appropriately match patients to available and/or novel therapeutics is crucial to improve patients' overall outcome and quality of life. Recently small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), a subset of nanoscale membranous vesicles secreted by various cells, have emerged as important analytes for liquid biopsy and promising vehicles for drug delivery. sEVs contain various biomolecules such as genetic material, proteins, and lipids that recapitulate the characteristics and state of their donor cells. The application of existing and newly developed technologies has resulted in an increased depth of knowledge about biophysical structures, biogenesis, and functions of sEVs. In prostate cancer patients, tumor-derived sEVs can be isolated from biofluids, commonly urine and blood. They mediate intercellular signaling within the tumor microenvironment and distal organ-specific sites, supporting cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. A mounting body of evidence suggests that sEV components can be potent biomarkers for prostate cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction of disease progression and treatment response. Due to enhanced circulation stability and bio-barrier permeability, sEVs can be also used as effective drug delivery carriers to improve the efficacy and specificity of anti-tumor therapies. This review discusses recent studies on sEVs in prostate cancer and is focused on their role as biomarkers and drug delivery vehicles in the clinical management of prostate cancer.

Insight into the Functional Dynamics and Challenges of Exosomes in Pharmaceutical Innovation and Precision Medicine

Of all the numerous nanosized extracellular vesicles released by a cell, the endosomal-originated exosomes are increasingly recognized as potential therapeutics, owing to their inherent stability, low immunogenicity, and targeted delivery capabilities. This review critically evaluates the transformative potential of exosome-based modalities across pharmaceutical and precision medicine landscapes. Because of their precise targeted biomolecular cargo delivery, exosomes are posited as ideal candidates in drug delivery, enhancing regenerative medicine strategies, and advancing diagnostic technologies. Despite the significant market growth projections of exosome therapy, its utilization is encumbered by substantial scientific and regulatory challenges. These include the lack of universally accepted protocols for exosome isolation and the complexities associated with navigating the regulatory environment, particularly the guidelines set forth by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This review presents a comprehensive overview of current research trajectories aimed at addressing these impediments and discusses prospective advancements that could substantiate the clinical translation of exosomal therapies. By providing a comprehensive analysis of both the capabilities and hurdles inherent to exosome therapeutic applications, this article aims to inform and direct future research paradigms, thereby fostering the integration of exosomal systems into mainstream clinical practice.

Environmental pollutants and exosomes: A new paradigm in environmental health and disease

This study investigates the intricate interplay between environmental pollutants and exosomes, shedding light on a novel paradigm in environmental health and disease. Cellular stress, induced by environmental toxicants or disease, significantly impacts the production and composition of exosomes, crucial mediators of intercellular communication. The heat shock response (HSR) and unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways, activated during cellular stress, profoundly influence exosome generation, cargo sorting, and function, shaping intercellular communication and stress responses. Environmental pollutants, particularly lipophilic ones, directly interact with exosome lipid bilayers, potentially affecting membrane stability, release, and cellular uptake. The study reveals that exposure to environmental contaminants induces significant changes in exosomal proteins, miRNAs, and lipids, impacting cellular function and health. Understanding the impact of environmental pollutants on exosomal cargo holds promise for biomarkers of exposure, enabling non-invasive sample collection and real-time insights into ongoing cellular responses. This research explores the potential of exosomal biomarkers for early detection of health effects, assessing treatment efficacy, and population-wide screening. Overcoming challenges requires advanced isolation techniques, standardized protocols, and machine learning for data analysis. Integration with omics technologies enhances comprehensive molecular analysis, offering a holistic understanding of the complex regulatory network influenced by environmental pollutants. The study underscores the capability of exosomes in circulation as promising biomarkers for assessing environmental exposure and systemic health effects, contributing to advancements in environmental health research and disease prevention.

Electrochemical detection of extracellular vesicles for early diagnosis: a focus on disease biomarker analysis

This review article presents a detailed examination of the integral role that electrochemical detection of extracellular vesicles (EVs) plays, particularly focusing on the potential application for early disease diagnostics through EVs biomarker analysis. Through an exploration of the benefits and challenges presented by electrochemical detection vetted for protein, lipid, and nucleic acid biomarker analysis, we underscore the significance of these techniques. Evidence from recent studies renders this detection modality imperative in identifying diverse biomarkers from EVs, leading to early diagnosis of diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. Recent advancements that have led to enhanced sensitivity, specificity and point-of-care testing (POCT) potential are elucidated, along with equipment deployed for electrochemical detection. The review concludes with a contemplation of future perspectives, recognizing the potential shifts in disease diagnostics and prognosis, necessary advances for broad adoption, and potential areas of ongoing research. The objective is to propel further investigation into this rapidly burgeoning field, thereby facilitating a potential paradigm shift in disease detection, monitoring, and treatment toward human health management.

Defining tropism and activity of natural and engineered extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have important roles as mediators of cell-to-cell communication, with physiological functions demonstrated in various in vivo models. Despite advances in our understanding of the biological function of EVs and their potential for use as therapeutics, there are limitations to the clinical approaches for which EVs would be effective. A primary determinant of the biodistribution of EVs is the profile of proteins and other factors on the surface of EVs that define the tropism of EVs in vivo. For example, proteins displayed on the surface of EVs can vary in composition by cell source of the EVs and the microenvironment into which EVs are delivered. In addition, interactions between EVs and recipient cells that determine uptake and endosomal escape in recipient cells affect overall systemic biodistribution. In this review, we discuss the contribution of the EV donor cell and the role of the microenvironment in determining EV tropism and thereby determining the uptake and biological activity of EVs.

Engineered and Mimicked Extracellular Nanovesicles for Therapeutic Delivery

Exosomes are spherical extracellular nanovesicles with an endosomal origin and unilamellar lipid-bilayer structure with sizes ranging from 30 to 100 nm. They contain a large range of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acid species, depending on the state and origin of the extracellular vesicle (EV)-secreting cell. EVs' function is to encapsulate part of the EV-producing cell content, to transport it through biological fluids to a targeted recipient, and to deliver their cargos specifically within the aimed recipient cells. Therefore, exosomes are considered to be potential biological drug-delivery systems that can stably deliver their cargo into targeted cells. Various cell-derived exosomes are produced for medical issues, but their use for therapeutic purposes still faces several problems. Some of these difficulties can be avoided by resorting to hemisynthetic approaches. We highlight here the uses of alternative exosome-mimes involving cell-membrane coatings on artificial nanocarriers or the hybridization between exosomes and liposomes. We also detail the drug-loading strategies deployed to make them drug-carrier systems and summarize the ongoing clinical trials involving exosomes or exosome-like structures. Finally, we summarize the open questions before considering exosome-like disposals for confident therapeutic delivery.

Extracellular Vesicles Slow Down Aβ(1-42) Aggregation by Interfering with the Amyloid Fibril Elongation Step

Formation of amyloid-β (Aβ) fibrils is a central pathogenic feature of Alzheimer's disease. Cell-secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been suggested as disease modulators, although their exact roles and relations to Aβ pathology remain unclear. We combined kinetics assays and biophysical analyses to explore how small (<220 nm) EVs from neuronal and non-neuronal human cell lines affected the aggregation of the disease-associated Aβ variant Aβ(1-42) into amyloid fibrils. Using thioflavin-T monitored kinetics and seeding assays, we found that EVs reduced Aβ(1-42) aggregation by inhibiting fibril elongation. Morphological analyses revealed this to result in the formation of short fibril fragments with increased thicknesses and less apparent twists. We suggest that EVs may have protective roles by reducing Aβ(1-42) amyloid loads, but also note that the formation of small amyloid fragments could be problematic from a neurotoxicity perspective. EVs may therefore have double-edged roles in the regulation of Aβ pathology in Alzheimer's disease.

A Review of the Use of Extracellular Vesicles in the Treatment of Neonatal Diseases: Current State and Problems with Translation to the Clinic

Neonatal disorders, particularly those resulting from prematurity, pose a major challenge in health care and have a significant impact on infant mortality and long-term child health. The limitations of current therapeutic strategies emphasize the need for innovative treatments. New cell-free technologies utilizing extracellular vesicles (EVs) offer a compelling opportunity for neonatal therapy by harnessing the inherent regenerative capabilities of EVs. These nanoscale particles, secreted by a variety of organisms including animals, bacteria, fungi and plants, contain a repertoire of bioactive molecules with therapeutic potential. This review aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of the therapeutic effects of EVs and mechanistic insights into EVs from stem cells, biological fluids and non-animal sources, with a focus on common neonatal conditions such as hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, respiratory distress syndrome, bronchopulmonary dysplasia and necrotizing enterocolitis. This review summarizes evidence for the therapeutic potential of EVs, analyzes evidence of their mechanisms of action and discusses the challenges associated with the implementation of EV-based therapies in neonatal clinical practice.

Brucea javanica derived exosome-like nanovesicles deliver miRNAs for cancer therapy

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is characterized by complex heterogeneity, high recurrence and metastasis rates, and short overall survival, owing to the lack of endocrine and targeted receptors, which necessitates chemotherapy as the major treatment regimen. Exosome-like nanovesicles derived from medicinal plants have shown great potential as novel biotherapeutics for cancer therapy by delivering their incorporated nucleic acids, especially microRNAs (miRNAs), to mammalian cells. In this study, we isolated exosome-like nanovesicles derived from B. javanica (BF-Exos) and investigated their influence and underlying molecular mechanisms in TNBC. We found that BF-Exos delivered 10 functional miRNAs to 4T1 cells, significantly retarding the growth and metastasis of 4T1 cells by regulating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and promoting ROS/caspase-mediated apoptosis. Moreover, BF-Exos were shown to inhibit the secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor, contributing to anti-angiogenesis in the tumor microenvironment. In vivo, BF-Exos inhibited tumor growth, metastasis, and angiogenesis in breast tumor mouse models, while maintaining high biosafety. Overall, BF-Exos are considered promising nanoplatforms for the delivery of medicinal plant-derived nucleic acids, with great potential to be developed into novel biotherapeutics for the treatment of TNBC.

Biogenesis and delivery of extracellular vesicles: harnessing the power of EVs for diagnostics and therapeutics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed particles secreted by a variety of cell types. These vesicles encapsulate a diverse range of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, metabolites, and even organelles derived from their parental cells. While EVs have emerged as crucial mediators of intercellular communication, they also hold immense potential as both biomarkers and therapeutic agents for numerous diseases. A thorough understanding of EV biogenesis is crucial for the development of EV-based diagnostic developments since the composition of EVs can reflect the health and disease status of the donor cell. Moreover, when EVs are taken up by target cells, they can exert profound effects on gene expression, signaling pathways, and cellular behavior, which makes these biomolecules enticing targets for therapeutic interventions. Yet, despite decades of research, the intricate processes underlying EV biogenesis by donor cells and subsequent uptake by recipient cells remain poorly understood. In this review, we aim to summarize current insights and advancements in the biogenesis and uptake mechanisms of EVs. By shedding light on the fundamental mechanisms governing EV biogenesis and delivery, this review underscores the potential of basic mechanistic research to pave the way for developing novel diagnostic strategies and therapeutic applications.

High-fat diets: You are what you eat….your extracellular vesicles too!

Recent works indicate that the lipid composition of extracellular vesicles (EVs) can modify their biological functions and their incorporation into recipient cells. In particular high-fat diets affect EV biogenesis, EV lipid composition, EV targeting and consequently the cross-talk between tissues. This review connects different research topics to show that a vicious circle is established during the development of high-fat diet-induced obesity, connecting the alteration of lipid metabolism, the composition of extracellular vesicles and the spread of deleterious lipids between tissues, which participates in NAFLD/NASH and diabetes development. According to the studies described in this review, it is urgent to take an interest in this question as the modulation of EV lipid composition could be an important factor to take into account during the therapeutic management of patients suffering from metabolic syndrome and related pathologies such as obesity and diabetes. Furthermore, as lipid modification of EVs is a strategy currently being tested to enable better integration into their target tissue or cell, it is important to consider the impact of these lipid modifications on the homeostasis of these targets.

The role of exosomes in cancer biology by shedding light on their lipid contents

Exosomes are extracellular bilayer membrane nanovesicles released by cells after the fusion of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) with the plasma membrane. One of the interesting features of exosomes is their ability to carry and transfer various molecules, including lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and therapeutic cargoes among cells. As intercellular signaling organelles, exosomes participate in various signaling processes such as tumor growth, metastasis, angiogenesis, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and cell physiology such as cell-to-cell communication. Moreover, these particles are considered good vehicles to shuttle vaccines and drugs for therapeutic applications regarding cancers and tumor cells. These bioactive vesicles are also rich in various lipid molecules such as cholesterol, sphingomyelin (SM), glycosphingolipids, and phosphatidylserine (PS). These lipids play an important role in the formation, release, and function of the exosomes and interestingly, some lipids are used as biomarkers in cancer diagnosis. This review aimed to focus on exosomes lipid content and their role in cancer biology.

Role of lipid signalling in extracellular vesicles-mediated cell-to-cell communication

Lipid signalling plays a crucial role in extracellular vesicle (EV)-mediated cell-to-cell communication. Extracellular vesicles are small membrane-bound structures released by various cell types into the extracellular environment. They include exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. These vesicles contain a variety of bioactive molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids (such as miRNAs and mRNAs), and lipids. Lipids are important components of EVs and are involved in various aspects of their biogenesis, cargo sorting, and functional effects on target cells. In this review, we will discuss how lipid signalling is involved in EV-mediated cell-to-cell communication. In summary, lipid signalling is intricately involved in extracellular vesicle-mediated cell-to-cell communication. The lipid composition of EVs influences their biogenesis, cargo sorting, interactions with target cells, and functional effects on recipient cells. Understanding the role of lipids in EV-mediated communication is essential for deciphering the mechanisms underlying intercellular signalling and developing potential therapeutic strategies based on EVs.