Alterations of NURR1 and Cytokines in the Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells: Combined Biomarkers for Parkinson's Disease

Should We Consider Neurodegeneration by Itself or in a Triangulation with Neuroinflammation and Demyelination? The Example of Multiple Sclerosis and Beyond

Neurodegeneration is preeminent in many neurological diseases, and still a major burden we fail to manage in patient's care. Its pathogenesis is complicated, intricate, and far from being completely understood. Taking multiple sclerosis as an example, we propose that neurodegeneration is neither a cause nor a consequence by itself. Mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to energy deficiency and ion imbalance, plays a key role in neurodegeneration, and is partly caused by the oxidative stress generated by microglia and astrocytes. Nodal and paranodal disruption, with or without myelin alteration, is further involved. Myelin loss exposes the axons directly to the inflammatory and oxidative environment. Moreover, oligodendrocytes provide a singular metabolic and trophic support to axons, but do not emerge unscathed from the pathological events, by primary myelin defects and cell apoptosis or secondary to neuroinflammation or axonal damage. Hereby, trophic failure might be an overlooked contributor to neurodegeneration. Thus, a complex interplay between neuroinflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration, wherein each is primarily and secondarily involved, might offer a more comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis and help establishing novel therapeutic strategies for many neurological diseases and beyond.

Differentiation and regulation of CD4+ T cell subsets in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, and its hallmark pathological features are the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the midbrain substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and the accumulation of alpha-synuclein (α-syn). It has been shown that the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is damaged in PD patients, and a large number of infiltrating T cells and inflammatory cytokines have been detected in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and brain parenchyma of PD patients and PD animal models, including significant change in the number and proportion of different CD4+ T cell subsets. This suggests that the neuroinflammatory response caused by CD4+ T cells is an important risk factor for the development of PD. Here, we systematically review the differentiation of CD4+ T cell subsets, and focus on describing the functions and mechanisms of different CD4+ T cell subsets and their secreted cytokines in PD. We also summarize the current immunotherapy targeting CD4+ T cells with a view to providing assistance in the diagnosis and treatment of PD.

Increased levels of regulatory T cells and IL-10-producing regulatory B cells are linked to improved clinical outcome in Parkinson's disease: a 1-year observational study

Whilst the contribution of peripheral and central inflammation to neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease and the role of the immune response in this disorder are well known, the effects of the anti-inflammatory response on the disease have not been described in depth. This study is aimed to assess the changes in the regulatory/inflammatory immune response in recently diagnosed, untreated PD patients and a year after. Twenty-one PD patients and 19 healthy controls were included and followed-up for 1 year. The levels of immunoregulatory cells (CD4+ Tregs, Bregs, and CD8+ Tregs); classical, nonclassical, and intermediate monocytes, and proinflammatory cells (Th1, Th2, and Th17) were measured by flow cytometry. Cytokine levels were determined by ELISA. Clinical follow-up was based on the Hoehn & Yahr and UDPRS scales. Our results indicate that the regulatory response in PD patients on follow-up was characterized by increased levels of active Tregs, functional Tregs, TR1, IL-10-producing functional Bregs, and IL-10-producing classical monocytes, along with decreased counts of Bregs and plasma cells. With respect to the proinflammatory immune response, peripheral levels of Th1 IFN-γ+ cells were decreased in treated PD patients, whilst the levels of CD4+ TBET+ cells, HLA-DR+ intermediate monocytes, IL-6, and IL-4 were increased after a 1-year follow-up. Our main finding was an increased regulatory T cell response after a 1-year follow-up and its link with clinical improvement in PD patients. In conclusion, after a 1-year follow-up, PD patients exhibited increased levels of regulatory populations, which correlated with clinical improvement. However, a persistent inflammatory environment and active immune response were observed.

Inflammation as common link to progressive neurological diseases

Life expectancy has increased immensely over the past decades, bringing new challenges to the health systems as advanced age increases the predisposition for many diseases. One of those is the burden of neurologic disorders. While many hypotheses have been placed to explain aging mechanisms, it has been widely accepted that the increasing pro-inflammatory status with advanced age or "inflammaging" is a main determinant of biological aging. Furthermore, inflammaging is at the cornerstone of many age-related diseases and its involvement in neurologic disorders is an exciting hypothesis. Indeed, aging and neurologic disorders development in the elderly seem to share some basic pathways that fundamentally converge on inflammation. Peripheral inflammation significantly influences brain function and contributes to the development of neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis. Understanding the role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of progressive neurological diseases is of crucial importance for developing effective treatments and interventions that can slow down or prevent disease progression, therefore, decreasing its social and economic burden.

The role of Nurr1-miR-30e-5p-NLRP3 axis in inflammation-mediated neurodegeneration: insights from mouse models and patients' studies in Parkinson's disease

Nuclear receptor related-1 (Nurr1), a ligand-activated transcription factor, is considered a potential susceptibility gene for Parkinson's disease (PD), and has been demonstrated to possess protective effects against inflammation-induced neuronal damage. Despite the evidence showing decreased NURR1 level and increased pro-inflammatory cytokines in cell and animal models as well as in PD patients' peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), the underlying mechanism remains elusive. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanism of Nurr1 in PD-related inflammation. Through the miRNA-sequencing and verification in PBMCs from a cohort of 450 individuals, we identified a significant change of a Nurr1-dependent miRNA miR-30e-5p in PD patients compared to healthy controls (HC). Additionally, PD patients exhibited an elevated plasma interleukin-1β (IL-1β) level and increased nucleotide-binding domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) expression in PBMCs compared to HC. Statistical analyses revealed significant correlations among NURR1, miR-30e-5p, and NLRP3 levels in the PBMCs of PD patients. To further explore the involvement of Nurr1-miR-30e-5p-NLRP3 axis in the inflammation-mediated PD pathology, we developed a mouse model (Nurr1flox+/Cd11b-cre+, Nurr1cKO) conditionally knocking out Nurr1 in Cd11b-expressing cells. Our investigations in Nurr1cKO mice unveiled significant dopaminergic neurodegeneration following lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation. Remarkably, Nurr1 deficiency triggered microglial activation and activated NLRP3 inflammasome, resulting in increased IL-1β secretion. Coincidently, we found that miR-30e-5p level was significantly decreased in the PBMCs and primary microglia of Nurr1cKO mice compared to the controls. Furthermore, our in vitro experiments demonstrated that miR-30e-5p specifically targeted NLRP3. In Nurr1-knockdown microglia, NLRP3 expression was upregulated via miR-30e-5p. In summary, our findings highlight the involvement of Nurr1-miR-30e-5p-NLRP3 axis in the inflammation-mediated neurodegeneration in PD, the results of which may offer promising prospects for developing PD biomarkers and targeted therapeutic interventions.

Anti-inflammatory effects of myristic acid mediated by the NF-κB pathway in lipopolysaccharide-induced BV-2 microglial cells

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a serious neurodegenerative disorder wherein changes in metabolites related to lipids, glutathione, and energy metabolism occur. Currently, metabolite changes in PD have been reported, yet their role in the prognosis of disease remains poorly understood. Functional metabolites can be used to diagnose diseases, especially PD, and can exert neuroprotective effects. This study used a PD animal model and a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammatory response model (using the BV-2 mouse microglial cell line) to identify functional metabolites that can identify important metabolic disorders during PD, and comprehensively evaluated their profiles using a metabolomics-based approach. Our results showed that co-treatment with myristic acid and heptadecanoic acid downregulated the expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α in BV-2 cells. Additionally, myristic acid and 10 μM heptadecanoic acid significantly inhibited the LPS-induced inflammatory response through the nuclear factor-κB pathway in BV-2 microglial cells, which provides a potential approach for PD treatment. Myristic acid and heptadecanoic acid were the active metabolites found by active metabolomics technology, but at present, there is no research report about their function for PD treatment, and our findings offer a novel research strategy for PD diagnosis and treatment.

Dopaminergic regulation of inflammation and immunity in Parkinson's disease: friend or foe?

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease affecting 7-10 million people worldwide. Currently, there is no treatment available to prevent or delay PD progression, partially due to the limited understanding of the pathological events which lead to the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra in the brain, which is known to be the cause of PD symptoms. The current available treatments aim at compensating dopamine (DA) deficiency in the brain using its precursor levodopa, dopaminergic agonists and some indirect dopaminergic agents. The immune system is emerging as a critical player in PD. Therefore, immune-based approaches have recently been proposed to be used as potential antiparkinsonian agents. It has been well-known that dopaminergic pathways play a significant role in regulating immune responses in the brain. Although dopaminergic agents are the primary antiparkinsonian treatments, their immune regulatory effect has yet to be fully understood. The present review summarises the current available evidence of the immune regulatory effects of DA and its mimics and discusses dopaminergic agents as antiparkinsonian drugs. Based on the current understanding of their involvement in the regulation of neuroinflammation in PD, we propose that targeting immune pathways involved in PD pathology could offer a better treatment outcome for PD patients.

Lithium's effects on therapeutic targets and MRI biomarkers in Parkinson's disease: A pilot clinical trial

Background

Lithium has a wide range of neuroprotective actions, has been effective in Parkinson's disease (PD) animal models and may account for the decreased risk of PD in smokers.

Methods

This open-label pilot clinical trial randomized 16 PD patients to "high-dose" (n = 5, lithium carbonate titrated to achieve serum level of 0.4-0.5 mmol/L), "medium-dose" (n = 6, 45 mg/day lithium aspartate) or "low-dose" (n = 5, 15 mg/day lithium aspartate) lithium therapy for 24-weeks. Peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) mRNA expression of nuclear receptor-related-1 (Nurr1) and superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1) were assessed by qPCR in addition to other PD therapeutic targets. Two patients from each group received multi-shell diffusion MRI scans to assess for free water (FW) changes in the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and nucleus basalis of Meynert, which reflect cognitive decline in PD, and the posterior substantia nigra, which reflects motor decline in PD.

Results

Two of the six patients receiving medium-dose lithium therapy withdrew due to side effects. Medium-dose lithium therapy was associated with the greatest numerical increases in PBMC Nurr1 and SOD1 expression (679% and 127%, respectively). Also, medium-dose lithium therapy was the only dosage associated with mean numerical decreases in brain FW in all three regions of interest, which is the opposite of the known longitudinal FW changes in PD.

Conclusion

Medium-dose lithium aspartate therapy was associated with engagement of blood-based therapeutic targets and improvements in MRI disease-progression biomarkers but was poorly tolerated in 33% of patients. Further PD clinical research is merited examining lithium's tolerability, effects on biomarkers and potential disease-modifying effects.

Advances in NURR1-Regulated Neuroinflammation Associated with Parkinson's Disease

Neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in the progression of neurodegenerative disorders, particularly Parkinson's disease (PD). Glial cell activation and subsequent adaptive immune involvement are neuroinflammatory features in familial and idiopathic PD, resulting in the death of dopaminergic neuron cells. An oxidative stress response, inflammatory mediator production, and immune cell recruitment and activation are all hallmarks of this activation, leading to chronic neuroinflammation and progressive neurodegeneration. Several studies in PD patients' cerebrospinal fluid and peripheral blood revealed alterations in inflammatory markers and immune cell populations that may lead to or exacerbate neuroinflammation and perpetuate the neurodegenerative process. Most of the genes causing PD are also expressed in astrocytes and microglia, converting their neuroprotective role into a pathogenic one and contributing to disease onset and progression. Nuclear receptor-related transcription factor 1 (NURR1) regulates gene expression linked to dopaminergic neuron genesis and functional maintenance. In addition to playing a key role in developing and maintaining neurotransmitter phenotypes in dopaminergic neurons, NURR1 agonists have been shown to reverse behavioral and histological abnormalities in animal PD models. NURR1 protects dopaminergic neurons from inflammation-induced degeneration, specifically attenuating neuronal death by suppressing the expression of inflammatory genes in microglia and astrocytes. This narrative review highlights the inflammatory changes in PD and the advances in NURR1-regulated neuroinflammation associated with PD. Further, we present new evidence that targeting this inflammation with a variety of potential NURR1 target therapy medications can effectively slow the progression of chronic neuroinflammation-induced PD.

Integrative analysis reveals structural basis for transcription activation of Nurr1 and Nurr1-RXRα heterodimer

Orphan nuclear receptor Nurr1 plays important roles in the progression of various diseases, including Parkinson's disease, neuroinflammation, Alzheimer's disease, and multiple sclerosis. It can recognize DNA as a monomer or heterodimer with retinoid X receptor α (RXRα). But the molecular mechanism of its transcriptional activity regulation is still largely unknown. Here we obtained a crystal structure of monomer Nurr1 (DNA- and ligand-binding domains, DBD and LBD) bound to NGFI-B response element. The structure exhibited two different forms with distinct DBD orientations, unveiling the conformational flexibility of nuclear receptor monomer. We then generated an integrative model of Nurr1-RXRα heterodimer. In the context of heterodimer, the structural flexibility of Nurr1 would contribute to its transcriptional activity modulation. We demonstrated that the DNA sequence may specifically modulate the transcriptional activity of Nurr1 in the absence of RXRα agonist, but the modulation can be superseded when the agonist binds to RXRα. Together, we propose a set of signaling pathways for the constitutive transcriptional activation of Nurr1 and provide molecular mechanisms for therapeutic discovery targeting Nurr1 and Nurr1-RXRα heterodimer.

Recent Progress in Non-motor Features of Parkinson's Disease with a Focus on Circadian Rhythm Dysregulation

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, which manifests with both motor and non-motor symptoms. Circadian rhythm dysregulation, as one of the most challenging non-motor features of PD, usually appears long before obvious motor symptoms. Moreover, the dysregulated circadian rhythm has recently been reported to play pivotal roles in PD pathogenesis, and it has emerged as a hot topic in PD research. In this review, we briefly introduce the circadian rhythm and circadian rhythm-related genes, and then summarize recent research progress on the altered circadian rhythm in PD, ranging from clinical features to the possible causes of PD-related circadian disorders. We believe that future comprehensive studies on the topic may not only help us to explore the mechanisms of PD, but also shed light on the better management of PD.

NDDRF: a risk factor knowledgebase for personalized prevention of neurodegenerative diseases

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A risk factor knowledgebase (NDDRF) is built for neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs).

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NDDRF collects the risk factors associated with diagnosis and prevention of NDDs.

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NDDRF is helpful to the systematic understanding of the heterogeneous NDDs

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NDDRF provides knowledge for personalized diagnosis and prevention of NDDs.

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NDDRF can be used to the future explainable artificial intelligent modeling.

Introduction

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are a series of chronic diseases, which are associated with progressive loss of neuronal structure or function. The complex etiologies of the NDDs remain unclear, thus the prevention and early diagnosis of NDDs are critical to reducing the mortality and morbidity of these diseases.

Objectives

To provide a systematic understanding of the heterogeneity of the risk factors associated with different NDDs (pan-neurodegenerative diseases or pan-NDDs), the knowledgebase is established to facilitate the personalized and knowledge-guided diagnosis, prevention and prediction of NDDs.

Methods

Before data collection, the medical, life science and informatics experts as well as the potential users of the database were consulted and discussed for the scope of data and the classification of risk factors. The PubMed database was used as the resource of the data and knowledge extraction. Risk factors of NDDs were manually collected from literature published between 1975 and 2020.

Results

The comprehensive risk factors database for NDDs (NDDRF) was established including 998 single or combined risk factors, 2293 records and 1071 articles relevant to the 14 most common NDDs. The single risk factors are classified into 3 categories, i.e. epidemiological factors (469), genetic factors (324) and biochemical factors (153). Among all the factors, 179 factors are positive and protective, while 880 factors have negative influence for NDDs. The knowledgebase is available at http://sysbio.org.cn/NDDRF/.

Conclusion

NDDRF provides the structured information and knowledge resource on risk factors of NDDs. It could benefit the future systematic and personalized investigation of pan-NDDs genesis and progression. Meanwhile it may be used for the future explainable artificial intelligence modeling for smart diagnosis and prevention of NDDs.

Failure of Glial Cell-Line Derived Neurotrophic Factor (GDNF) in Clinical Trials Orchestrated By Reduced NR4A2 (NURR1) Transcription Factor in Parkinson's Disease. A Systematic Review

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative maladies with unforeseen complex pathologies. While this neurodegenerative disorder’s neuropathology is reasonably well known, its etiology remains a mystery, making it challenging to aim therapy. Glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) remains an auspicious therapeutic molecule for treating PD. Neurotrophic factor derived from glial cell lines is effective in rodents and nonhuman primates, but clinical findings have been equivocal. Laborious exertions have been made over the past few decades to improve and assess GDNF in treating PD (clinical studies). Definitive clinical trials have, however, failed to demonstrate a survival advantage. Consequently, there seemed to be a doubt as to whether GDNF has merit in the potential treatment of PD. The purpose of this cutting edge review is to speculate as to why the clinical trials have failed to meet the primary endpoint. We introduce a hypothesis, “Failure of GDNF in clinical trials succumbed by nuclear receptor-related factor 1 (Nurr1) shortfall.” We demonstrate how Nurr1 binds to GDNF to induce dopaminergic neuron synthesis. Due to its undisputable neuro-protection aptitude, we display Nurr1 (also called Nr4a2) as a promising therapeutic target for PD.

Comprehensive metabolic profiling of Parkinson's disease by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Background

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a prevalent neurological disease in the elderly with increasing morbidity and mortality. Despite enormous efforts, rapid and accurate diagnosis of PD is still compromised. Metabolomics defines the final readout of genome-environment interactions through the analysis of the entire metabolic profile in biological matrices. Recently, unbiased metabolic profiling of human sample has been initiated to identify novel PD metabolic biomarkers and dysfunctional metabolic pathways, however, it remains a challenge to define reliable biomarker(s) for clinical use.

Methods

We presented a comprehensive metabolic evaluation for identifying crucial metabolic disturbances in PD using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry-based metabolomics approach. Plasma samples from 3 independent cohorts (n = 460, 223 PD, 169 healthy controls (HCs) and 68 PD-unrelated neurological disease controls) were collected for the characterization of metabolic changes resulted from PD, antiparkinsonian treatment and potential interferences of other diseases. Unbiased multivariate and univariate analyses were performed to determine the most promising metabolic signatures from all metabolomic datasets. Multiple linear regressions were applied to investigate the associations of metabolites with age, duration time and stage of PD. The combinational biomarker model established by binary logistic regression analysis was validated by 3 cohorts.

Results

A list of metabolites including amino acids, acylcarnitines, organic acids, steroids, amides, and lipids from human plasma of 3 cohorts were identified. Compared with HC, we observed significant reductions of fatty acids (FFAs) and caffeine metabolites, elevations of bile acids and microbiota-derived deleterious metabolites, and alterations in steroid hormones in drug-naïve PD. Additionally, we found that L-dopa treatment could affect plasma metabolome involved in phenylalanine and tyrosine metabolism and alleviate the elevations of bile acids in PD. Finally, a metabolite panel of 4 biomarker candidates, including FFA 10:0, FFA 12:0, indolelactic acid and phenylacetyl-glutamine was identified based on comprehensive discovery and validation workflow. This panel showed favorable discriminating power for PD.

Conclusions

This study may help improve our understanding of PD etiopathogenesis and facilitate target screening for therapeutic intervention. The metabolite panel identified in this study may provide novel approach for the clinical diagnosis of PD in the future.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13024-021-00425-8.

NURR1 Alterations in Perinatal Stress: A First Step towards Late-Onset Diseases? A Narrative Review

Perinatal life represents a delicate phase of development where stimuli of all sorts, coming to or from the mother, can influence the programming of the future baby's health. These stimuli may have consequences that persist throughout adulthood. Nuclear receptor related 1 protein (NURR1), a transcription factor with a critical role in the development of the dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain, mediates the response to stressful environmental stimuli in the perinatal period. During pregnancy, low-grade inflammation triggered by maternal obesity, hyperinsulinemia or vaginal infections alters NURR1 expression in human gestational tissues. A similar scenario is triggered by exposure to neurotoxic compounds, which are associated with NURR1 epigenetic deregulation in the offspring, with potential intergenerational effects. Since these alterations have been associated with an increased risk of developing late-onset diseases in children, NURR1, alone, or in combination with other molecular markers, has been proposed as a new prognostic tool and a potential therapeutic target for several pathological conditions. This narrative review describes perinatal stress associated with NURR1 gene deregulation, which is proposed here as a mediator of late-onset consequences of early life events.

Nurr1Cd11bcre conditional knockout mice display inflammatory injury to nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons

Nuclear receptor-related 1 protein (NURR1) is essential for the development and maintenance of midbrain dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons. NURR1 also protects DAergic neurons against neuroinflammation. However, it remains to be determined to what extent does NURR1 exerts its protective function through acting autonomously in the microglia. Using Cre/lox gene targeting system, we deleted Nurr1 in the microglia of Nurr1^Cd11bcre conditional knockout (cKO) mice. The Nurr1^Cd11bcre cKO mice displayed age-dependent motor abnormalities and increased microglial activation, but with no obvious DAergic neurodegeneration. To boost the inflammatory injury, we systemically administered endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to Nurr1^Cd11bcre mice. As expected, LPS treatment exacerbated the motor phenotypes and inflammatory reactions in Nurr1^Cd11bcre cKO mice. More importantly, LPS administration caused DAergic neuron loss and α-synuclein aggregation, two pathological hallmarks of Parkinson's disease (PD). Therefore, our findings provide in vivo evidence supporting a critical protective role of NURR1 in the microglia against inflammation-induced degeneration of DAergic neurons in PD.

Biomarkers for Parkinson's Disease: How Good Are They?

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder with no cure in sight. Clinical challenges of the disease include the inability to make a definitive diagnosis at the early stages and difficulties in predicting the disease progression. The unmet demand to identify reliable biomarkers for early diagnosis and management of the disease course of PD has attracted a lot of attention. However, only a few reported candidate biomarkers have been tried in clinical practice at the present time. Studies on PD biomarkers have often overemphasized the discovery of novel identity, whereas efforts to further evaluate such candidates are rare. Therefore, we update the new development of biomarker discovery in PD and discuss the standard process in the evaluation and assessment of the diagnostic or prognostic value of the identified potential PD biomarkers in this review article. Recent developments in combined biomarkers and the current status of clinical trials of biomarkers as outcome measures are also discussed. We believe that the combination of different biomarkers might enhance the specificity and sensitivity over a single measure that might not be sufficient for such a multiplex disease.

High lithium levels in tobacco may account for reduced incidences of both Parkinson's disease and melanoma in smokers through enhanced β-catenin-mediated activity

Parkinson's disease (PD) patients have higher rates of melanoma and vice versa, observations suggesting that the two conditions may share common pathogenic pathways. β-Catenin is a transcriptional cofactor that, when concentrated in the nucleus, upregulates the expression of canonical Wnt target genes, such as Nurr1, many of which are important for neuronal survival. β-Catenin-mediated activity is decreased in sporadic PD as well as in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) and β-glucosidase (GBA) mutation cellular models of PD, which is the most common genetic cause of and risk for PD, respectively. In addition, β-catenin expression is significantly decreased in more aggressive and metastatic melanoma. Multiple observational studies have shown smokers to have significantly lower rates of PD as well as melanoma implying that tobacco may contain one or more elements that protect against both conditions. In support, smoker's brains have significantly reduced levels of α-synuclein, a pathological intracellular protein found in PD brain and melanoma cells. Tobacco contains very high lithium levels compared to other plants. Lithium has a broad array of neuroprotective actions, including enhancing autophagy and reducing intracellular α-synuclein levels, and is effective in both neurotoxin and transgenic preclinical PD models. One of lithium's neuroprotective actions is enhancement of β-catenin-mediated activity leading to increased Nurr1 expression through its ability to inhibit glycogen synthase kinase-3 β (GSK-3β). Lithium also has anti-proliferative effects on melanoma cells and the clinical use of lithium is associated with a reduced incidence of melanoma as well as reduced melanoma-associated mortality. This is the first known report hypothesizing that inhaled lithium from smoking may account for the associated reduced rates of both PD and melanoma and that this protection may be mediated, in part, through lithium-induced GSK-3β inhibition and consequent enhanced β-catenin-mediated activity. This hypothesis could be directly tested in clinical trials assessing lithium therapy's ability to affect β-catenin-mediated activity and slow disease progression in patients with PD or melanoma.

Altered Expression Levels of MicroRNA-132 and Nurr1 in Peripheral Blood of Parkinson's Disease: Potential Disease Biomarkers

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small and evolutionary conserved noncoding RNAs that are involved in post-transcriptional gene regulation. Differential expression levels of miRNAs can be used as potential biomarkers of disease. Previous animal studies have indicated that the expression level of miR-132 is negatively correlated with its downstream molecule nuclear receptor related 1 protein (Nurr1), which is one of the key factors for the maintenance of dopaminergic function and is particularly vulnerable in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, this correlation has not been confirmed in human patients with PD. Moreover, the possible involvement of miR-132 during the pathogenesis and progression of PD is not fully investigated. Therefore, in the present study, we determined the peripheral circulation levels of miR-132 and Nurr1 in patients with PD, neurological disease controls (NDC) and healthy controls (HC) by reverse transcription real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Our data clearly demonstrated that the plasma miR-132 level in PD was significantly higher than those in HC (178%, p < 0.05) and NDC (188%, p < 0.001). When adjusted for gender and age, higher level of miR-132 expression was associated with the significantly increased risk for PD in males and was closely related with the disease stages and disease severity. Furthermore, peripheral Nurr1 was significantly decreased in PD compared with HC (56%, p < 0.001) and NDC (58%, p < 0.001). Much more interestingly, further analysis revealed a negative correlation between the decreased Nurr1 level and the elevated miR-132 level in PD. All these findings indicated that the combination of a high miR-132 level with the low level of its downstream Nurr1 might be a potential biomarker aiding in the diagnosis of PD and monitoring disease progression.

Molecular Insights into NR4A2(Nurr1): an Emerging Target for Neuroprotective Therapy Against Neuroinflammation and Neuronal Cell Death

NR4A2 is a nuclear receptor and a transcription factor, with distinctive physiological features. In the cell nuclei of the central nervous system, it is widely expressed and identified as a crucial regulator of dopaminergic (DA) neuronal differentiation, survival, and maintenance. Importantly, it has regulated different genes crucial for dopaminergic signals, and its expression has been diminished in both aged and PD post-mortem brains and reduced in PD patients. In microglia and astrocytes, the expression of NR4A2 has been found where it can be capable of inhibiting the expression of proinflammatory mediators; hence, it protected inflammation-mediated DA neuronal death. In addition, NR4A2 plays neuroprotective role via regulating different signals. However, NR4A2 has been mainly focused on Parkinson's research, but, in recent times, it has been studied in Alzheimer's disease (AD), multiple sclerosis (MS), and stroke. Altered expression of NR4A2 is connected to AD progression, and activation of its may improve cognitive function. It is downregulated in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of MS patients; nonetheless, its role in MS has not been fully clear. miR-145-5p known as a putative regulator of NR4A2 and in a middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion model, anti-miR-145-5p administration promoted neurological outcomes in rat. To date, various activators and modulators of NR4A2 have been discovered and investigated as probable therapeutic drugs in neuroinflammatory and neuronal cell death models. The NR4A2 gene and cell-based therapy are described as promising drug candidates for neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, microRNA might have a crucial role in neurodegeneration via affecting NR4A2 expression. Herein, we present the role of NR4A2 in neuroinflammation and neuronal cell death focusing on neurodegenerative conditions and display NR4A2 as a promising therapeutic target for the therapy of neuroprotection.