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Jia Q, Li J, Guo X, Li Y, Wu Y, Peng Y, Fang Z, Zhang X. Neuroprotective effects of chaperone-mediated autophagy in neurodegenerative diseases. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:1291-1298. [PMID: 37905878 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.385848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Chaperone-mediated autophagy is one of three types of autophagy and is characterized by the selective degradation of proteins. Chaperone-mediated autophagy contributes to energy balance and helps maintain cellular homeostasis, while providing nutrients and support for cell survival. Chaperone-mediated autophagy activity can be detected in almost all cells, including neurons. Owing to the extreme sensitivity of neurons to their environmental changes, maintaining neuronal homeostasis is critical for neuronal growth and survival. Chaperone-mediated autophagy dysfunction is closely related to central nervous system diseases. It has been shown that neuronal damage and cell death are accompanied by chaperone-mediated autophagy dysfunction. Under certain conditions, regulation of chaperone-mediated autophagy activity attenuates neurotoxicity. In this paper, we review the changes in chaperone-mediated autophagy in neurodegenerative diseases, brain injury, glioma, and autoimmune diseases. We also summarize the most recent research progress on chaperone-mediated autophagy regulation and discuss the potential of chaperone-mediated autophagy as a therapeutic target for central nervous system diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Jia
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Department of Intensive Care Unit, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Jin Li
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Department of Intensive Care Unit, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Air Force Medical Center, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaofeng Guo
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Department of Intensive Care Unit, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Yi Li
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Department of Intensive Care Unit, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - You Wu
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Department of Intensive Care Unit, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Yuliang Peng
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Department of Intensive Care Unit, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Zongping Fang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Department of Intensive Care Unit, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xijing Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Department of Intensive Care Unit, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China
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2
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Teixeira ABDS, Ramalho MCC, de Souza I, de Andrade IAM, Osawa IYA, Guedes CB, de Oliveira BS, de Souza CHD, da Silva TL, Moreno NC, Latancia MT, Rocha CRR. The role of chaperone-mediated autophagy in drug resistance. Genet Mol Biol 2024; 47:e20230317. [PMID: 38829285 PMCID: PMC11145944 DOI: 10.1590/1678-4685-gmb-2023-0317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
In the search for alternatives to overcome the challenge imposed by drug resistance development in cancer treatment, the modulation of autophagy has emerged as a promising alternative that has achieved good results in clinical trials. Nevertheless, most of these studies have overlooked a novel and selective type of autophagy: chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA). Following its discovery, research into CMA's contribution to tumor progression has accelerated rapidly. Therefore, we now understand that stress conditions are the primary signal responsible for modulating CMA in cancer cells. In turn, the degradation of proteins by CMA can offer important advantages for tumorigenesis, since tumor suppressor proteins are CMA targets. Such mutual interaction between the tumor microenvironment and CMA also plays a crucial part in establishing therapy resistance, making this discussion the focus of the present review. Thus, we highlight how suppression of LAMP2A can enhance the sensitivity of cancer cells to several drugs, just as downregulation of CMA activity can lead to resistance in certain cases. Given this panorama, it is important to identify selective modulators of CMA to enhance the therapeutic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Beatriz da Silva Teixeira
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Departamento de
Oncologia Clínica e Experimental, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Maria Carolina Clares Ramalho
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Departamento de
Oncologia Clínica e Experimental, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Izadora de Souza
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Departamento de
Oncologia Clínica e Experimental, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Isabeli Yumi Araújo Osawa
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Departamento de
Oncologia Clínica e Experimental, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Camila Banca Guedes
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Departamento de
Oncologia Clínica e Experimental, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Beatriz Silva de Oliveira
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Departamento de
Oncologia Clínica e Experimental, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Tainá Lins da Silva
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Departamento de
Oncologia Clínica e Experimental, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Natália Cestari Moreno
- National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Child Health
and Human Development, Laboratory of Genomic Integrity, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Marcela Teatin Latancia
- National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Child Health
and Human Development, Laboratory of Genomic Integrity, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Clarissa Ribeiro Reily Rocha
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Departamento de
Oncologia Clínica e Experimental, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Yamashima T, Mochly-Rosen D, Wakatsuki S, Mizukoshi E, Seike T, Larus IM, Chen CH, Takemura M, Saito H, Ohashi A. Cleavage of Hsp70.1 causes lysosomal cell death under stress conditions. Front Mol Biosci 2024; 11:1378656. [PMID: 38859931 PMCID: PMC11163108 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2024.1378656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Autophagy mediates the degradation of intracellular macromolecules and organelles within lysosomes. There are three types of autophagy: macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperone-mediated autophagy. Heat shock protein 70.1 (Hsp70.1) exhibits dual functions as a chaperone protein and a lysosomal membrane stabilizer. Since chaperone-mediated autophagy participates in the recycling of ∼30% cytosolic proteins, its disorder causes cell susceptibility to stress conditions. Cargo proteins destined for degradation such as amyloid precursor protein and tau protein are trafficked by Hsp70.1 from the cytosol into lysosomes. Hsp70.1 is composed of an N-terminal nucleotide-binding domain (NBD) and a C-terminal domain that binds to cargo proteins, termed the substrate-binding domain (SBD). The NBD and SBD are connected by the interdomain linker LL1, which modulates the allosteric structure of Hsp70.1 in response to ADP/ATP binding. After the passage of the Hsp70.1-cargo complex through the lysosomal limiting membrane, high-affinity binding of the positive-charged SBD with negative-charged bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate (BMP) at the internal vesicular membranes activates acid sphingomyelinase to generate ceramide for stabilizing lysosomal membranes. As the integrity of the lysosomal limiting membrane is critical to ensure cargo protein degradation within the acidic lumen, the disintegration of the lysosomal limiting membrane is lethal to cells. After the intake of high-fat diets, however, β-oxidation of fatty acids in the mitochondria generates reactive oxygen species, which enhance the oxidation of membrane linoleic acids to produce 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE). In addition, 4-HNE is produced during the heating of linoleic acid-rich vegetable oils and incorporated into the body via deep-fried foods. This endogenous and exogenous 4-HNE synergically causes an increase in its serum and organ levels to induce carbonylation of Hsp70.1 at Arg469, which facilitates its conformational change and access of activated μ-calpain to LL1. Therefore, the cleavage of Hsp70.1 occurs prior to its influx into the lysosomal lumen, which leads to lysosomal membrane permeabilization/rupture. The resultant leakage of cathepsins is responsible for lysosomal cell death, which would be one of the causative factors of lifestyle-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsumori Yamashima
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Daria Mochly-Rosen
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Soichi Wakatsuki
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Eishiro Mizukoshi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Takuya Seike
- Department of Gastroenterology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Isabel Maria Larus
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Che-Hong Chen
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Miho Takemura
- Laboratory of Gene Function, Research Institute for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi, Japan
| | - Hisashi Saito
- Division of Collaborative Research and Development, Exploratory Oncology Research and Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center, Kashiwa, Japan
| | - Akihiro Ohashi
- Division of Collaborative Research and Development, Exploratory Oncology Research and Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center, Kashiwa, Japan
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4
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Yu L, Pang X, Yang L, Jin K, Guo W, Wei Y, Pang C. Sensitivity of substrate translocation in chaperone-mediated autophagy to Alzheimer's disease progression. Aging (Albany NY) 2024; 16:9072-9105. [PMID: 38787367 PMCID: PMC11164475 DOI: 10.18632/aging.205856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive brain disorder marked by abnormal protein accumulation and resulting proteotoxicity. This study examines Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy (CMA), particularly substrate translocation into lysosomes, in AD. The study observes: (1) Increased substrate translocation activity into lysosomes, vital for CMA, aligns with AD progression, highlighted by gene upregulation and more efficient substrate delivery. (2) This CMA phase strongly correlates with AD's clinical symptoms; more proteotoxicity links to worse dementia, underscoring the need for active degradation. (3) Proteins like GFAP and LAMP2A, when upregulated, almost certainly indicate AD risk, marking this process as a significant AD biomarker. Based on these observations, this study proposes the following hypothesis: As AD progresses, the aggregation of pathogenic proteins increases, the process of substrate entry into lysosomes via CMA becomes active. The genes associated with this process exhibit heightened sensitivity to AD. This conclusion stems from an analysis of over 10,000 genes and 363 patients using two AI methodologies. These methodologies were instrumental in identifying genes highly sensitive to AD and in mapping the molecular networks that respond to the disease, thereby highlighting the significance of this critical phase of CMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Yu
- College of Computer Science, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610101, China
| | - Xinping Pang
- West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Lin Yang
- College of Computer Science, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610101, China
| | - Kunpei Jin
- College of Computer Science, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610101, China
| | - Wenbo Guo
- College of Computer Science, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610101, China
| | - Yanyu Wei
- National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Vacuum Electronics, School of Electronic Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Chaoyang Pang
- College of Computer Science, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu 610101, China
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5
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Marzoog BA. Autophagy as an Anti-senescent in Aging Neurocytes. Curr Mol Med 2024; 24:182-190. [PMID: 36683318 DOI: 10.2174/1566524023666230120102718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Neuron homeostasis is crucial for the organism, and its maintenance is multifactorial, including autophagy. The turnover of aberrant intracellular components is a fundamental pathogenetic mechanism for cell aging. Autophagy is involved in the acceleration of the neurocyte aging process and the modification of cell longevity. Neurocyte aging is a process of loss of cell identity through cellular and subcellular changes that include molecular loss of epigenetics, transcriptomic, proteomic, and autophagy dysfunction. Autophagy dysfunction is the hallmark of neurocyte aging. Cell aging is the credential feature of neurodegenerative diseases. Pathophysiologically, aged neurocytes are characterized by dysregulated autophagy and subsequently neurocyte metabolic stress, resulting in accelerated neurocyte aging. In particular, chaperone- mediated autophagy perturbation results in upregulated expression of aging and apoptosis genes. Aged neurocytes are also characterized by the down-regulation of autophagy-related genes, such as ATG5-ATG12, LC3-II / LC3-I ratio, Beclin-1, and p62. Slowing aging through autophagy targeting is sufficient to improve prognosis in neurodegenerative diseases. Three primary anti-senescent molecules are involved in the aging process: mTOR, AMPK, and Sirtuins. Autophagy therapeutic effects can be applied to reverse and slow aging. This article discusses current advances in the role of autophagy in neurocyte homeostasis, aging, and potential therapeutic strategies to reduce aging and increase cell longevity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basheer Abdullah Marzoog
- National Research Mordovia State University, Bolshevitskaya Street, 68, Saransk, 430005, Rep. Mordovia, Russia
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Transcription of Autophagy Associated Gene Expression as Possible Predictors of a Colorectal Cancer Prognosis. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11020418. [PMID: 36830954 PMCID: PMC9952998 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11020418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Autophagy plays a dual role in oncogenesis-it contributes to the growth of the tumor and can inhibit its development. The aim of this study was to assess changes in the transcriptional activity of LAMP-2, BECN1, PINK1, and FOXO1 genes involved in the autophagy process in histopathologically confirmed adenocarcinoma sections of colorectal cancer: (2) Methods: A gene expression profile analysis was performed using HG-U133A and the RT-qPCR reaction. The transcriptional activity of genes was compared in sections of colorectal cancer in the four clinical stages (CSI-CSIV) concerning the control group; (3) Results: In CSI, the transcriptional activity of the PINK1 gene is highest; in CS II, the LAMP-2 gene is highest, while FOXO1 increases gradually from CSI reaching a maximum in CSIII. There is no BECN1 gene expression in colorectal cancer cells; (4) Conclusions: The observed differences in the mRNA concentration profile of autophagy-related genes in colon cancer specimens may indicate the role of autophagy in the pathogenesis of this cancer. Genes involved in autophagy may be diagnostic tools for colorectal cancer screening and personalized therapy in the future.
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7
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Armocida D, Busceti CL, Biagioni F, Fornai F, Frati A. The Role of Cellular Prion Protein in Glioma Tumorigenesis Could Be through the Autophagic Mechanisms: A Narrative Review. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021405. [PMID: 36674920 PMCID: PMC9865539 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The carcinogenesis of glial tumors appears complex because of the many genetic and epigenetic phenomena involved. Among these, cellular prion protein (PrPC) is considered a key factor in cell-death resistance and important aspect implicated in tumorigenesis. Autophagy also plays an important role in cell death in various pathological conditions. These two cellular phenomena are related and share the same activation by specific alterations in the cellular microenvironment. Furthermore, there is an interdependence between autophagy and prion activity in glioma tumorigenesis. Glioma is one of the most aggressive known cancers, and the fact that such poorly studied processes as autophagy and PrPC activity are so strongly involved in its carcinogenesis suggests that by better understanding their interaction, more can be understood about its origin and treatment. Few studies in the literature relate these two cellular phenomena, much less try to explain their combined activity and role in glioma carcinogenesis. In this study, we explored the recent findings on the molecular mechanism and regulation pathways of autophagy, examining the role of PrPC in autophagy processes and how they may play a central role in glioma tumorigenesis. Among the many molecular interactions that PrP physiologically performs, it appears that processes shared with autophagy activity are those most implicated in glial tumor carcinogeneses such as activity on MAP kinases, PI3K, and mTOR. This work can be supportive and valuable as a basis for further future studies on this topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Armocida
- Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Caserta 6, 00161 Roma, Italy
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Caserta 6, 00161 Roma, Italy
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (I.R.C.C.S.) Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-39-3287-4496
| | - Carla Letizia Busceti
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (I.R.C.C.S.) Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Francesca Biagioni
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (I.R.C.C.S.) Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Francesco Fornai
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (I.R.C.C.S.) Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Alessandro Frati
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (I.R.C.C.S.) Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy
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Tseng CS, Chao YW, Liu YH, Huang YS, Chao HW. Dysregulated proteostasis network in neuronal diseases. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1075215. [PMID: 36910151 PMCID: PMC9998692 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1075215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Long-term maintenance of synaptic connections is important for brain function, which depends on varying proteostatic regulations to govern the functional integrity of neuronal proteomes. Proteostasis supports an interconnection of pathways that regulates the fate of proteins from synthesis to degradation. Defects in proteostatic signaling are associated with age-related functional decline and neurodegenerative diseases. Recent studies have advanced our knowledge of how cells have evolved distinct mechanisms to safely control protein homeostasis during synthesis, folding and degradation, and in different subcellular organelles and compartments. Neurodegeneration occurs when these protein quality controls are compromised by accumulated pathogenic proteins or aging to an irreversible state. Consequently, several therapeutic strategies, such as targeting the unfolded protein response and autophagy pathways, have been developed to reduce the burden of misfolded proteins and proved useful in animal models. Here, we present a brief overview of the molecular mechanisms involved in maintaining proteostatic networks, along with some examples linking dysregulated proteostasis to neuronal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching-San Tseng
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Wen Chao
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hsiang Liu
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Shuian Huang
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsu-Wen Chao
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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9
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Hedna R, Kovacic H, Pagano A, Peyrot V, Robin M, Devred F, Breuzard G. Tau Protein as Therapeutic Target for Cancer? Focus on Glioblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:5386. [PMID: 36358803 PMCID: PMC9653627 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14215386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite being extensively studied for several decades, the microtubule-associated protein Tau has not finished revealing its secrets. For long, Tau has been known for its ability to promote microtubule assembly. A less known feature of Tau is its capability to bind to cancer-related protein kinases, suggesting a possible role of Tau in modulating microtubule-independent cellular pathways that are associated with oncogenesis. With the intention of finding new therapeutic targets for cancer, it appears essential to examine the interaction of Tau with these kinases and their consequences. This review aims at collecting the literature data supporting the relationship between Tau and cancer with a particular focus on glioblastoma tumors in which the pathological significance of Tau remains largely unexplored. We will first treat this subject from a mechanistic point of view showing the pivotal role of Tau in oncogenic processes. Then, we will discuss the involvement of Tau in dysregulating critical pathways in glioblastoma. Finally, we will outline promising strategies to target Tau protein for the therapy of glioblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayane Hedna
- Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Institut de Neurophysiopathologie (INP), UMR 7051, CNRS, Aix Marseille Université, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Hervé Kovacic
- Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Institut de Neurophysiopathologie (INP), UMR 7051, CNRS, Aix Marseille Université, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Alessandra Pagano
- Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Institut de Neurophysiopathologie (INP), UMR 7051, CNRS, Aix Marseille Université, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Vincent Peyrot
- Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Institut de Neurophysiopathologie (INP), UMR 7051, CNRS, Aix Marseille Université, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Maxime Robin
- Faculté de Pharmacie, Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et Ecologie marine et continentale (IMBE), UMR 7263, CNRS, IRD 237, Aix-Marseille Université, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - François Devred
- Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Institut de Neurophysiopathologie (INP), UMR 7051, CNRS, Aix Marseille Université, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Gilles Breuzard
- Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Institut de Neurophysiopathologie (INP), UMR 7051, CNRS, Aix Marseille Université, 13005 Marseille, France
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10
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Sreenivasmurthy SG, Iyaswamy A, Krishnamoorthi S, Reddi RN, Kammala AK, Vasudevan K, Senapati S, Zhu Z, Su CF, Liu J, Guan XJ, Chua KK, Cheung KH, Chen H, Zhang HJ, Zhang Y, Song JX, Kumar Durairajan SS, Li M. Bromo-protopine, a novel protopine derivative, alleviates tau pathology by activating chaperone-mediated autophagy for Alzheimer’s disease therapy. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:1030534. [PMID: 36387280 PMCID: PMC9643865 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1030534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence from Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients suggests that reducing tau pathology can restore cognitive and memory loss. To reduce tau pathology, it is critical to find brain-permeable tau-degrading small molecules that are safe and effective. HDAC6 inhibition has long been considered a safe and effective therapy for tau pathology. Recently, we identified protopine as a dibenzazecine alkaloid with anti-HDAC6 and anti-AD activities. In this study, we synthesized and tested novel protopine derivatives for their pharmacological action against AD. Among them, bromo-protopine (PRO-Br) demonstrated a two-fold increase in anti-HDAC6 activity and improved anti-tau activities compared to the parent compound in both in vitro and in vivo AD models. Furthermore, molecular docking results showed that PRO-Br binds to HDAC6, with a ∆G value of −8.4 kcal/mol and an IC50 value of 1.51 µM. In neuronal cell lines, PRO-Br reduced pathological tau by inducing chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA). In 3xTg-AD and P301S tau mice models, PRO-Br specifically decreased the pathogenic hyperphosphorylated tau clumps and led to the restoration of memory functions. In addition, PRO-Br treatment promoted the clearance of pathogenic tau by enhancing the expression of molecular chaperones (HSC70) and lysosomal markers (LAMP2A) via CMA in AD models. Our data strongly suggest that administration of the brain-permeable protopine derivative PRO-Br, could be a viable anti-tau therapeutic strategy for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sravan Gopalkrishnashetty Sreenivasmurthy
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
- Institute for Research and Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Ashok Iyaswamy
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
- Institute for Research and Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Senthilkumar Krishnamoorthi
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
- Centre for Trans-disciplinary Research, Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Chennai, India
| | - Rambabu N. Reddi
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ananth Kumar Kammala
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Basic and Translational Research, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, United States
| | | | - Sanjib Senapati
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Zhou Zhu
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
- Institute for Research and Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Cheng-Fu Su
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
- Institute for Research and Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
- Institute for Research and Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xin-Jie Guan
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ka-Kit Chua
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
| | - King-Ho Cheung
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
- Institute for Research and Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hubiao Chen
- School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hong-Jie Zhang
- School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Second People’s Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Ju-Xian Song
- Medical College of Acupuncture-Moxibustion and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Siva Sundara Kumar Durairajan
- Mycobiology and Neurodegenerative Disease Research Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India
- *Correspondence: Min Li, ; Siva Sundara Kumar Durairajan,
| | - Min Li
- Mr. and Mrs. Ko Chi-Ming Centre for Parkinson’s Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
- Institute for Research and Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University, Shenzhen, China
- *Correspondence: Min Li, ; Siva Sundara Kumar Durairajan,
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11
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Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy in Pericytes: A Key Target for the Development of New Treatments against Glioblastoma Progression. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23168886. [PMID: 36012149 PMCID: PMC9408771 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23168886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GB) cells physically interact with peritumoral pericytes (PCs) present in the brain microvasculature. These interactions facilitate tumor cells to aberrantly increase and benefit from chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) in the PC. GB-induced CMA leads to major changes in PC immunomodulatory phenotypes, which, in turn, support cancer progression. In this review, we focus on the consequences of the GB-induced up-regulation of CMA activity in PCs and evaluate how manipulation of this process could offer new strategies to fight glioblastoma, increasing the availability of treatments for this cancer that escapes conventional therapies. We finally discuss the use of modified PCs unable to increase CMA in response to GB as a cell therapy alternative to minimize undesired off-target effects associated with a generalized CMA inhibition.
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12
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Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Pharmacological Opportunities. Cells 2022; 11:cells11142250. [PMID: 35883693 PMCID: PMC9323300 DOI: 10.3390/cells11142250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) is a protein degradation mechanism through lysosomes. By targeting the KFERQ motif of the substrate, CMA is responsible for the degradation of about 30% of cytosolic proteins, including a series of proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). The fact that decreased activity of CMA is observed in NDs, and ND-associated mutant proteins, including alpha-synuclein and Tau, directly impair CMA activity reveals a possible vicious cycle of CMA impairment and pathogenic protein accumulation in ND development. Given the intrinsic connection between CMA dysfunction and ND, enhancement of CMA has been regarded as a strategy to counteract ND. Indeed, genetic and pharmacological approaches to modulate CMA have been shown to promote the degradation of ND-associated proteins and alleviate ND phenotypes in multiple ND models. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the mechanism of CMA with a focus on its relationship with NDs and discusses the therapeutic potential of CMA modulation for ND.
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13
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Manzoor S, Muhammad JS, Maghazachi AA, Hamid Q. Autophagy: A Versatile Player in the Progression of Colorectal Cancer and Drug Resistance. Front Oncol 2022; 12:924290. [PMID: 35912261 PMCID: PMC9329589 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.924290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the topmost malignancies for both genders. Despite the high incidence rate and advances in diagnostic tools, treatment in many cases is still ineffective. Most cancerous lesions in CRC begin as benign, followed by the development of invasive forms and metastases. The development of CRC has been linked to defects in autophagy, which plays both a pro-and anti-tumor role and is mainly context-dependent. Autophagy suppression could enhance apoptosis via p53 activation, or autophagy also promotes tumor progression by maintaining tumor growth and increasing resistance to chemotherapy. Autophagy promotes the invasion and metastasis of CRC cells via increased epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Moreover, dysbiosis of gut microbiota upregulated autophagy and metastasis markers. Autophagy responses may also modulate the tumor microenvironment (TME) via regulating the differentiation process of several innate immune cells. Treatments that promote tumor cell death by stimulating or inhibiting autophagy could be beneficial if used as an adjunct treatment, but the precise role of various autophagy-modulating drugs in CRC patients is needed to be explored. In this article, we present an overview of the autophagy process and its role in the pathogenesis and therapeutic resistance of CRC. Also, we focused on the current understanding of the role of the EMT and TME, including its relation to gut microbiota and immune cells, in autophagic manipulation of CRC. We believe that there is a potential link between autophagy, TME, EMT, and drug resistance, suggesting that further studies are needed to explore this aspect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaista Manzoor
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Jibran Sualeh Muhammad
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Azzam A. Maghazachi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Qutayba Hamid
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- *Correspondence: Qutayba Hamid,
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14
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Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy in Neurodegenerative Diseases and Acute Neurological Insults in the Central Nervous System. Cells 2022; 11:cells11071205. [PMID: 35406769 PMCID: PMC8997510 DOI: 10.3390/cells11071205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an important function that mediates the degradation of intracellular proteins and organelles. Chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) degrades selected proteins and has a crucial role in cellular proteostasis under various physiological and pathological conditions. CMA dysfunction leads to the accumulation of toxic protein aggregates in the central nervous system (CNS) and is involved in the pathogenic process of neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Previous studies have suggested that the activation of CMA to degrade aberrant proteins can provide a neuroprotective effect in the CNS. Recent studies have shown that CMA activity is upregulated in damaged neural tissue following acute neurological insults, such as cerebral infarction, traumatic brain injury, and spinal cord injury. It has been also suggested that various protein degradation mechanisms are important for removing toxic aberrant proteins associated with secondary damage after acute neurological insults in the CNS. Therefore, enhancing the CMA pathway may induce neuroprotective effects not only in neurogenerative diseases but also in acute neurological insults. We herein review current knowledge concerning the biological mechanisms involved in CMA and highlight the role of CMA in neurodegenerative diseases and acute neurological insults. We also discuss the possibility of developing CMA-targeted therapeutic strategies for effective treatments.
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15
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Duran-Aniotz C, Moreno-Gonzalez I, Medinas DB, Morales R. Editorial: Protein Misfolding and Proteostasis Impairment in Aging and Neurodegeneration: From Spreading Studies to Therapeutic Approaches. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 13:830779. [PMID: 35221985 PMCID: PMC8864239 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.830779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Duran-Aniotz
- Latin American Institute for Brain Health (BrainLat), Universidad Adolfo Ibanez, Santiago, Chile
- Center for Social and Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Universidad Adolfo Ibanez, Santiago, Chile
- *Correspondence: Claudia Duran-Aniotz
| | - Ines Moreno-Gonzalez
- Departamento Biologia Celular, Genetica y Fisiologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Universidad de Malaga, Málaga, Spain
- Networking Research Center on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
- Centro Integrativo de Biología y Química Aplicada, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, Chile
- Department of Neurology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Danilo B. Medinas
- Biomedical Neuroscience Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Center for Geroscience, Brain Health and Metabolism, Santiago, Chile
- Program of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Molecular Studies of the Cell, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rodrigo Morales
- Centro Integrativo de Biología y Química Aplicada, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, Chile
- Department of Neurology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, United States
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16
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Over Fifty Years of Life, Death, and Cannibalism: A Historical Recollection of Apoptosis and Autophagy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212466. [PMID: 34830349 PMCID: PMC8618802 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Research in biomedical sciences has changed dramatically over the past fifty years. There is no doubt that the discovery of apoptosis and autophagy as two highly synchronized and regulated mechanisms in cellular homeostasis are among the most important discoveries in these decades. Along with the advancement in molecular biology, identifying the genetic players in apoptosis and autophagy has shed light on our understanding of their function in physiological and pathological conditions. In this review, we first describe the history of key discoveries in apoptosis with a molecular insight and continue with apoptosis pathways and their regulation. We touch upon the role of apoptosis in human health and its malfunction in several diseases. We discuss the path to the morphological and molecular discovery of autophagy. Moreover, we dive deep into the precise regulation of autophagy and recent findings from basic research to clinical applications of autophagy modulation in human health and illnesses and the available therapies for many diseases caused by impaired autophagy. We conclude with the exciting crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy, from the early discoveries to recent findings.
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17
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Willbold D, Strodel B, Schröder GF, Hoyer W, Heise H. Amyloid-type Protein Aggregation and Prion-like Properties of Amyloids. Chem Rev 2021; 121:8285-8307. [PMID: 34137605 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This review will focus on the process of amyloid-type protein aggregation. Amyloid fibrils are an important hallmark of protein misfolding diseases and therefore have been investigated for decades. Only recently, however, atomic or near-atomic resolution structures have been elucidated from various in vitro and ex vivo obtained fibrils. In parallel, the process of fibril formation has been studied in vitro under highly artificial but comparatively reproducible conditions. The review starts with a summary of what is known and speculated from artificial in vitro amyloid-type protein aggregation experiments. A partially hypothetic fibril selection model will be described that may be suitable to explain why amyloid fibrils look the way they do, in particular, why at least all so far reported high resolution cryo-electron microscopy obtained fibril structures are in register, parallel, cross-β-sheet fibrils that mostly consist of two protofilaments twisted around each other. An intrinsic feature of the model is the prion-like nature of all amyloid assemblies. Transferring the model from the in vitro point of view to the in vivo situation is not straightforward, highly hypothetic, and leaves many open questions that need to be addressed in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Willbold
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, Structural Biochemistry, IBI-7, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.,Institut für Physikalische Biologie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.,Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (State University), 141700 Dolgoprudny, Russia
| | - Birgit Strodel
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, Structural Biochemistry, IBI-7, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.,Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Gunnar F Schröder
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, Structural Biochemistry, IBI-7, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.,Physics Department, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Hoyer
- Institut für Physikalische Biologie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Henrike Heise
- Institute of Biological Information Processing, Structural Biochemistry, IBI-7, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.,Institut für Physikalische Biologie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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18
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Jandrey EHF, Bezerra M, Inoue LT, Furnari FB, Camargo AA, Costa ÉT. A Key Pathway to Cancer Resilience: The Role of Autophagy in Glioblastomas. Front Oncol 2021; 11:652133. [PMID: 34178638 PMCID: PMC8222785 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.652133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There are no effective strategies for the successful treatment of glioblastomas (GBM). Current therapeutic modalities effectively target bulk tumor cells but leave behind marginal GBM cells that escape from the surgical margins and radiotherapy field, exhibiting high migratory phenotype and resistance to all available anti-glioma therapies. Drug resistance is mostly driven by tumor cell plasticity: a concept associated with reactivating transcriptional programs in response to adverse and dynamic conditions from the tumor microenvironment. Autophagy, or "self-eating", pathway is an emerging target for cancer therapy and has been regarded as one of the key drivers of cell plasticity in response to energy demanding stress conditions. Many studies shed light on the importance of autophagy as an adaptive mechanism, protecting GBM cells from unfavorable conditions, while others recognize that autophagy can kill those cells by triggering a non-apoptotic cell death program, called 'autophagy cell death' (ACD). In this review, we carefully analyzed literature data and conclude that there is no clear evidence indicating the presence of ACD under pathophysiological settings in GBM disease. It seems to be exclusively induced by excessive (supra-physiological) stress signals, mostly from in vitro cell culture studies. Instead, pre-clinical and clinical data indicate that autophagy is an emblematic example of the 'dark-side' of a rescue pathway that contributes profoundly to a pro-tumoral adaptive response. From a standpoint of treating the real human disease, only combinatorial therapy targeting autophagy with cytotoxic drugs in the adjuvant setting for GBM patients, associated with the development of less toxic and more specific autophagy inhibitors, may inhibit adaptive response and enhance the sensibility of glioma cells to conventional therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marcelle Bezerra
- Molecular Oncology Center, Hospital Sírio-Libanês, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Frank B. Furnari
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California San Diego (UCSD), San Diego, CA, United States
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