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Chen Y, Spina S, Callahan P, Grinberg LT, Seeley WW, Rosen HJ, Kramer JH, Miller BL, Rankin KP. Pathology-specific patterns of cerebellar atrophy in neurodegenerative disorders. Alzheimers Dement 2024; 20:1771-1783. [PMID: 38109286 PMCID: PMC10984510 DOI: 10.1002/alz.13551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Associations of cerebellar atrophy with specific neuropathologies in Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) have not been systematically analyzed. This study examined cerebellar gray matter volume across major pathological subtypes of ADRD. METHODS Cerebellar gray matter volume was examined using voxel-based morphometry in 309 autopsy-proven ADRD cases and 80 healthy controls. ADRD subtypes included AD, mixed Lewy body disease and AD (LBD-AD), and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). Clinical function was assessed using the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) scale. RESULTS Distinct patterns of cerebellar atrophy were observed in all ADRD subtypes. Significant cerebellar gray matter changes appeared in the early stages of most subtypes and the very early stages of AD, LBD-AD, FTLD-TDP type A, and progressive supranuclear palsy. Cortical atrophy positively predicted cerebellar atrophy across all subtypes. DISCUSSION Our findings establish pathology-specific profiles of cerebellar atrophy in ADRD and propose cerebellar neuroimaging as a non-invasive biomarker for differential diagnosis and disease monitoring. HIGHLIGHTS Cerebellar atrophy was examined in 309 patients with autopsy-proven neurodegeneration. Distinct patterns of cerebellar atrophy are found in all pathological subtypes of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD). Cerebellar atrophy is seen in early-stage (Clinical Dementia Rating [CDR] ≤1) AD, Lewy body dementia (LBD), frontotemporal lobar degeneration with tau-positive inclusion (FTLD-tau), and FTLD-transactive response DNA binding protein (FTLD-TDP). Cortical atrophy positively predicts cerebellar atrophy across all neuropathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- Department of NeurologyMemory and Aging CenterWeill Institute for NeurosciencesUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Salvatore Spina
- Department of NeurologyMemory and Aging CenterWeill Institute for NeurosciencesUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Patrick Callahan
- Department of NeurologyMemory and Aging CenterWeill Institute for NeurosciencesUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Lea T. Grinberg
- Department of NeurologyMemory and Aging CenterWeill Institute for NeurosciencesUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
- Department of PathologyUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - William W. Seeley
- Department of NeurologyMemory and Aging CenterWeill Institute for NeurosciencesUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
- Department of PathologyUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Howard J. Rosen
- Department of NeurologyMemory and Aging CenterWeill Institute for NeurosciencesUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Joel H. Kramer
- Department of NeurologyMemory and Aging CenterWeill Institute for NeurosciencesUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Bruce L. Miller
- Department of NeurologyMemory and Aging CenterWeill Institute for NeurosciencesUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Katherine P. Rankin
- Department of NeurologyMemory and Aging CenterWeill Institute for NeurosciencesUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
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Prakash N, Matos HY, Sebaoui S, Tsai L, Tran T, Aromolaran A, Atrachji I, Campbell N, Goodrich M, Hernandez-Pineda D, Jesus Herrero M, Hirata T, Lischinsky J, Martinez W, Torii S, Yamashita S, Hosseini H, Sokolowski K, Esumi S, Kawasawa YI, Hashimoto-Torii K, Jones KS, Corbin JG. Connectivity and molecular profiles of Foxp2- and Dbx1-lineage neurons in the accessory olfactory bulb and medial amygdala. J Comp Neurol 2024; 532:e25545. [PMID: 37849047 PMCID: PMC10922300 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
In terrestrial vertebrates, the olfactory system is divided into main (MOS) and accessory (AOS) components that process both volatile and nonvolatile cues to generate appropriate behavioral responses. While much is known regarding the molecular diversity of neurons that comprise the MOS, less is known about the AOS. Here, focusing on the vomeronasal organ (VNO), the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), and the medial amygdala (MeA), we reveal that populations of neurons in the AOS can be molecularly subdivided based on their ongoing or prior expression of the transcription factors Foxp2 or Dbx1, which delineate separate populations of GABAergic output neurons in the MeA. We show that a majority of AOB neurons that project directly to the MeA are of the Foxp2 lineage. Using single-neuron patch-clamp electrophysiology, we further reveal that in addition to sex-specific differences across lineage, the frequency of excitatory input to MeA Dbx1- and Foxp2-lineage neurons differs between sexes. Together, this work uncovers a novel molecular diversity of AOS neurons, and lineage and sex differences in patterns of connectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nandkishore Prakash
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Heidi Y Matos
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Sonia Sebaoui
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Luke Tsai
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Tuyen Tran
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Adejimi Aromolaran
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Isabella Atrachji
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Nya Campbell
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Meredith Goodrich
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - David Hernandez-Pineda
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Maria Jesus Herrero
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Tsutomu Hirata
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Julieta Lischinsky
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Wendolin Martinez
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Shisui Torii
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Satoshi Yamashita
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Hassan Hosseini
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical
School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan
Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Katie Sokolowski
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Shigeyuki Esumi
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Yuka Imamura Kawasawa
- Department of Pharmacology, Pennsylvania State University
College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Kazue Hashimoto-Torii
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
| | - Kevin S Jones
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical
School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan
Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Joshua G Corbin
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children’s
Research Institute, Children’s National Hospital, Washington DC, USA
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Steinbusch HWM, Dolatkhah MA, Hopkins DA. Anatomical and neurochemical organization of the serotonergic system in the mammalian brain and in particular the involvement of the dorsal raphe nucleus in relation to neurological diseases. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2021; 261:41-81. [PMID: 33785137 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2021.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The brainstem is a neglected brain area in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, frontotemporal lobar degeneration and autonomic dysfunction. In Depression, several observations have been made in relation to changes in one particular the Dorsal Raphe Nucleus (DRN) which also points toward as key area in various age-related and neurodevelopmental diseases. The DRN is further thought to be related to stress regulated processes and cognitive events. It is involved in neurodegeneration, e.g., amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and impaired synaptic transmission in Alzheimer's disease as shown in our autopsy findings. The DRN is a phylogenetically old brain area, with projections that reach out to a large number of regions and nuclei of the central nervous system, particularly in the forebrain. These ascending projections contain multiple neurotransmitters. One of the main reasons for the past and current interest in the DRN is its involvement in depression, and its main transmitter serotonin. The DRN also points toward the increased importance and focus of the brainstem as key area in various age-related and neurodevelopmental diseases. This review describes the morphology, ascending projections and the complex neurotransmitter nature of the DRN, stressing its role as a key research target into the neural bases of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry W M Steinbusch
- Department of Cellular Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Department of Brain & Cognitive Sciences, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology-DGIST, Daegu, South Korea.
| | | | - David A Hopkins
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
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Watson ME, Scott D, Jamieson C, Layfield R, Mason AM. Design, synthesis and evaluation of E2‐25K derived stapled peptides. Pept Sci (Hoboken) 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pep2.24158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Morag E. Watson
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry University of Strathclyde Glasgow UK
| | - Daniel Scott
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School Nottingham UK
| | - Craig Jamieson
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry University of Strathclyde Glasgow UK
| | - Robert Layfield
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School Nottingham UK
| | - Andrew M. Mason
- Medicinal Sciences and Technology, GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Medicines Research Centre Stevenage Herts UK
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Bruchhage MMK, Correia S, Malloy P, Salloway S, Deoni S. Machine Learning Classification Identifies Cerebellar Contributions to Early and Moderate Cognitive Decline in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:524024. [PMID: 33240072 PMCID: PMC7669549 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.524024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common forms of dementia, marked by progressively degrading cognitive function. Although cerebellar changes occur throughout AD progression, its involvement and predictive contribution in its earliest stages, as well as gray or white matter components involved, remains unclear. We used MRI machine learning-based classification to assess the contribution of two tissue components [volume fraction myelin (VFM), and gray matter (GM) volume] within the whole brain, the neocortex, the whole cerebellum as well as its anterior and posterior parts and their predictive contribution to the first two stages of AD and typically aging controls. While classification accuracy increased with AD stages, VFM was the best predictor for all early stages of dementia when compared with typically aging controls. However, we document overall higher cerebellar prediction accuracy when compared to the whole brain with distinct structural signatures of higher anterior cerebellar contribution to mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and higher posterior cerebellar contribution to mild/moderate stages of AD for each tissue property. Based on these different cerebellar profiles and their unique contribution to early disease stages, we propose a refined model of cerebellar contribution to early AD development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muriel M. K. Bruchhage
- Advanced Baby Imaging Lab, Hasbro Children’s Hospital, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | - Stephen Correia
- Butler Hospital Memory and Aging Program, Providence, RI, United States
- Department of Human Behavior and Psychiatry, Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | - Paul Malloy
- Butler Hospital Memory and Aging Program, Providence, RI, United States
- Department of Human Behavior and Psychiatry, Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | - Stephen Salloway
- Butler Hospital Memory and Aging Program, Providence, RI, United States
- Department of Human Behavior and Psychiatry, Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
- Department of Neurology, Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | - Sean Deoni
- Advanced Baby Imaging Lab, Hasbro Children’s Hospital, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
- Maternal, Newborn and Child Health Discovery & Tools, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA, United States
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6
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Verheijen BM, Stevens JAA, Gentier RJG, van 't Hekke CD, van den Hove DLA, Hermes DJHP, Steinbusch HWM, Ruijter JM, Grimm MOW, Haupenthal VJ, Annaert W, Hartmann T, van Leeuwen FW. Paradoxical effects of mutant ubiquitin on Aβ plaque formation in an Alzheimer mouse model. Neurobiol Aging 2018; 72:62-71. [PMID: 30216939 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques are a prominent pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). They consist of aggregated Aβ peptides, which are generated through sequential proteolytic processing of the transmembrane protein amyloid precursor protein (APP) and several Aβ-associated factors. Efficient clearance of Aβ from the brain is thought to be important to prevent the development and progression of AD. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is one of the major pathways for protein breakdown in cells and it has been suggested that impaired UPS-mediated removal of protein aggregates could play an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. To study the effects of an impaired UPS on Aβ pathology in vivo, transgenic APPSwe/PS1ΔE9 mice (APPPS1) were crossed with transgenic mice expressing mutant ubiquitin (UBB+1), a protein-based inhibitor of the UPS. Surprisingly, the APPPS1/UBB+1 crossbreed showed a remarkable decrease in Aβ plaque load during aging. Further analysis showed that UBB+1 expression transiently restored PS1-NTF expression and γ-secretase activity in APPPS1 mice. Concurrently, UBB+1 decreased levels of β-APP-CTF, which is a γ-secretase substrate. Although UBB+1 reduced Aβ pathology in APPPS1 mice, it did not improve the behavioral deficits in these animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bert M Verheijen
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jo A A Stevens
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Romina J G Gentier
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Christian D van 't Hekke
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel L A van den Hove
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Denise J H P Hermes
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Harry W M Steinbusch
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan M Ruijter
- Department of Medical Biology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marcus O W Grimm
- Deutsches Institut für Demenzprävention, University of Saarland, Experimental Neurology, Homburg, Germany
| | - Viola J Haupenthal
- Deutsches Institut für Demenzprävention, University of Saarland, Experimental Neurology, Homburg, Germany
| | - Wim Annaert
- VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research and KU Leuven, Gasthuisberg, Belgium
| | - Tobias Hartmann
- Deutsches Institut für Demenzprävention, University of Saarland, Experimental Neurology, Homburg, Germany
| | - Fred W van Leeuwen
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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7
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Verheijen BM, Gentier RJG, Hermes DJHP, van Leeuwen FW, Hopkins DA. Selective Transgenic Expression of Mutant Ubiquitin in Purkinje Cell Stripes in the Cerebellum. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2017; 16:746-750. [PMID: 27966098 PMCID: PMC5427096 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-016-0838-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is one of the major mechanisms for protein breakdown in cells, targeting proteins for degradation by enzymatically conjugating them to ubiquitin molecules. Intracellular accumulation of ubiquitin-B+1 (UBB+1), a frameshift mutant of ubiquitin-B, is indicative of a dysfunctional UPS and has been implicated in several disorders, including neurodegenerative disease. UBB+1-expressing transgenic mice display widespread labeling for UBB+1 in brain and exhibit behavioral deficits. Here, we show that UBB+1 is specifically expressed in a subset of parasagittal stripes of Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex of a UBB+1-expressing mouse model. This expression pattern is reminiscent of that of the constitutively expressed Purkinje cell antigen HSP25, a small heat shock protein with neuroprotective properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bert M Verheijen
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
- Lab of Experimental Neurology, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Romina J G Gentier
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Denise J H P Hermes
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Fred W van Leeuwen
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - David A Hopkins
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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French SW, Mendoza AS, Peng Y. The mechanisms of Mallory-Denk body formation are similar to the formation of aggresomes in Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Exp Mol Pathol 2016; 100:426-33. [PMID: 27068270 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexmp.2016.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
There is a possibility that the aggresomes that form in the brain in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease (AD) and in the liver where aggresomes like Mallory-Denk Bodies (MDB) form, share mechanisms. MDBs can be prevented by feeding mice sadenosylmethionine (SAMe) or betaine. Possibly these proteins could prevent AD. We compared the literature on MDBs and AD pathogenesis, which include roles played by p62, ubiquitin UBB +1, HSPs70, 90, 104, FAT10, NEDD8, VCP/97, and the protein quality control mechanisms including the 26s proteasome, the IPOD and JUNQ and autophagosome pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- S W French
- Department of Pathology, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA 90509, United States
| | - A S Mendoza
- Department of Pathology, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA 90509, United States
| | - Y Peng
- Department of Pathology, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA 90509, United States
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Gentier RJ, van Leeuwen FW. Misframed ubiquitin and impaired protein quality control: an early event in Alzheimer's disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2015; 8:47. [PMID: 26388726 PMCID: PMC4557111 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2015.00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyloid β (Aβ) plaque formation is a prominent cellular hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). To date, immunization trials in AD patients have not been effective in terms of curing or ameliorating dementia. In addition, γ-secretase inhibitor strategies await clinical improvements in AD. These approaches were based upon the idea that autosomal dominant mutations in amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Presenilin 1 (PS1) genes are predictive for treatment of all AD patients. However most AD patients are of the sporadic form which partly explains the failures to treat this multifactorial disease. The major risk factor for developing sporadic AD (SAD) is aging whereas the Apolipoprotein E polymorphism (ε4 variant) is the most prominent genetic risk factor. Other medium-risk factors such as triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) and nine low risk factors from Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) were associated with AD. Recently, pooled GWAS studies identified protein ubiquitination as one of the key modulators of AD. In addition, a brain site specific strategy was used to compare the proteomes of AD patients by an Ingenuity Pathway Analysis. This strategy revealed numerous proteins that strongly interact with ubiquitin (UBB) signaling, and pointing to a dysfunctional ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) as a causal factor in AD. We reported that DNA-RNA sequence differences in several genes including ubiquitin do occur in AD, the resulting misframed protein of which accumulates in the neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). This suggests again a functional link between neurodegeneration of the AD type and loss of protein quality control by the UPS. Progress in this field is discussed and modulating the activity of the UPS opens an attractive avenue of research towards slowing down the development of AD and ameliorating its effects by discovering prime targets for AD therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romina J. Gentier
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht UniversityMaastricht, Netherlands
| | - Fred W. van Leeuwen
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht UniversityMaastricht, Netherlands
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