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Mai J, Gargiullo R, Zheng M, Esho V, Hussein OE, Pollay E, Bowe C, Williamson LM, McElroy AF, Saunders JL, Goolsby WN, Brooks KA, Rodgers CC. Sound-seeking before and after hearing loss in mice. Sci Rep 2024; 14:19181. [PMID: 39160202 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-67577-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024] Open
Abstract
How we move our bodies affects how we perceive sound. For instance, head movements help us to better localize the source of a sound and to compensate for asymmetric hearing loss. However, many auditory experiments are designed to restrict head and body movements. To study the role of movement in hearing, we developed a behavioral task called sound-seeking that rewarded freely moving mice for tracking down an ongoing sound source. Over the course of learning, mice more efficiently navigated to the sound. Next, we asked how sound-seeking was affected by hearing loss induced by surgical removal of the malleus from the middle ear. After bilateral hearing loss sound-seeking performance drastically declined and did not recover. In striking contrast, after unilateral hearing loss mice were only transiently impaired and then recovered their sound-seek ability over about a week. Throughout recovery, unilateral mice increasingly relied on a movement strategy of sequentially checking potential locations for the sound source. In contrast, the startle reflex (an innate auditory behavior) was preserved after unilateral hearing loss and abolished by bilateral hearing loss without recovery over time. In sum, mice compensate with body movement for permanent unilateral damage to the peripheral auditory system. Looking forward, this paradigm provides an opportunity to examine how movement enhances perception and enables resilient adaptation to sensory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Mai
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Rowan Gargiullo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Megan Zheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Valentina Esho
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Osama E Hussein
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Eliana Pollay
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Cedric Bowe
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Lucas M Williamson
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Abigail F McElroy
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Jonny L Saunders
- Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - William N Goolsby
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Kaitlyn A Brooks
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30308, USA
| | - Chris C Rodgers
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Tech and Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- Department of Biology, Emory College of Arts and Sciences, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
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2
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Reinagel P. Water restriction still has a place. Lab Anim (NY) 2024; 53:107. [PMID: 38594495 DOI: 10.1038/s41684-024-01364-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
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3
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Mai J, Gargiullo R, Zheng M, Esho V, Hussein OE, Pollay E, Bowe C, Williamson LM, McElroy AF, Goolsby WN, Brooks KA, Rodgers CC. Sound-seeking before and after hearing loss in mice. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.08.574475. [PMID: 38260458 PMCID: PMC10802496 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.08.574475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
How we move our bodies affects how we perceive sound. For instance, we can explore an environment to seek out the source of a sound and we can use head movements to compensate for hearing loss. How we do this is not well understood because many auditory experiments are designed to limit head and body movements. To study the role of movement in hearing, we developed a behavioral task called sound-seeking that rewarded mice for tracking down an ongoing sound source. Over the course of learning, mice more efficiently navigated to the sound. We then asked how auditory behavior was affected by hearing loss induced by surgical removal of the malleus from the middle ear. An innate behavior, the auditory startle response, was abolished by bilateral hearing loss and unaffected by unilateral hearing loss. Similarly, performance on the sound-seeking task drastically declined after bilateral hearing loss and did not recover. In striking contrast, mice with unilateral hearing loss were only transiently impaired on sound-seeking; over a recovery period of about a week, they regained high levels of performance, increasingly reliant on a different spatial sampling strategy. Thus, even in the face of permanent unilateral damage to the peripheral auditory system, mice recover their ability to perform a naturalistic sound-seeking task. This paradigm provides an opportunity to examine how body movement enables better hearing and resilient adaptation to sensory deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Mai
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30322
| | - Rowan Gargiullo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30322
| | - Megan Zheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30322
| | - Valentina Esho
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30322
| | - Osama E Hussein
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30322
| | - Eliana Pollay
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30322
| | - Cedric Bowe
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta GA 30322
| | | | | | - William N Goolsby
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30322
| | - Kaitlyn A Brooks
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30308
| | - Chris C Rodgers
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30322
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30322
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Tech and Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA 30322
- Department of Biology, Emory College of Arts and Sciences, Atlanta GA 30322
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4
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Marques DP, Chacur M, Martins DO. Photobiomodulation and vitamin B treatment alleviate both thermal and mechanical orofacial pain in rats. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2023; 22:2315-2327. [PMID: 37340216 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-023-00452-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The present study investigates the efficacy of Photobiomodulation (PBM) and Vitamin B Complex (VBC) to relieve pain, both in separately and combined (PBM and VBC). METHODS Rats with chronic constriction injury of the right infraorbital nerve (CCI-IoN) or Sham surgery were used. PBM was administered at a wavelength of 904 nm and energy density of 6.23 J/cm2 and VBC (containing B1, B6 and B12) subcutaneously, both separately and combined. Behavioral tests were performed to assess mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity before and after CCI and after PBM, VBC, or PBM + VBC. The expression of inflammatory proteins in the trigeminal ganglion and the immunohistochemical alterations of Periaqueductal Gray (PAG) astrocytes and microglia were examined following CCI and treatments. RESULTS All testeds treatments reversed the painful behavior. The decrease in pain was accompanied by a decrease of Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP), a specific astrocytic marker, and Ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1), a marker of microglia, and decreased expression of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), Substance P, and Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP) induced by CCI-IoN in PAG and Trigeminal ganglion. Furthermore, both treatments showed a higher expression of Cannabinoid-type 1 (CB1) receptor in the trigeminal ganglion compared to CCI-IoN rats. Our results show that no difference was observed between groups. CONCLUSION We showed that PBM or VBC regulates neuroinflammation and reduces inflammatory protein expression. However, the combination of PBM and VBC did not enhance the effectiveness of both therapies alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Pereira Marques
- Departamento de Anatomia, Laboratory of Functional Neuroanatomy of Pain, Universidade de São Paulo Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marucia Chacur
- Departamento de Anatomia, Laboratory of Functional Neuroanatomy of Pain, Universidade de São Paulo Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Daniel Oliveira Martins
- Departamento de Anatomia, Laboratory of Functional Neuroanatomy of Pain, Universidade de São Paulo Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
- Division of Neuroscience/Hospital Sírio-Libânes, Street Daher Cutait, 69, São Paulo, São Paulo, 01308-060, Brazil.
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5
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Petroccione MA, D'Brant LY, Affinnih N, Wehrle PH, Todd GC, Zahid S, Chesbro HE, Tschang IL, Scimemi A. Neuronal glutamate transporters control reciprocal inhibition and gain modulation in D1 medium spiny neurons. eLife 2023; 12:e81830. [PMID: 37435808 PMCID: PMC10411972 DOI: 10.7554/elife.81830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the function of glutamate transporters has broad implications for explaining how neurons integrate information and relay it through complex neuronal circuits. Most of what is currently known about glutamate transporters, specifically their ability to maintain glutamate homeostasis and limit glutamate diffusion away from the synaptic cleft, is based on studies of glial glutamate transporters. By contrast, little is known about the functional implications of neuronal glutamate transporters. The neuronal glutamate transporter EAAC1 is widely expressed throughout the brain, particularly in the striatum, the primary input nucleus of the basal ganglia, a region implicated with movement execution and reward. Here, we show that EAAC1 limits synaptic excitation onto a population of striatal medium spiny neurons identified for their expression of D1 dopamine receptors (D1-MSNs). In these cells, EAAC1 also contributes to strengthen lateral inhibition from other D1-MSNs. Together, these effects contribute to reduce the gain of the input-output relationship and increase the offset at increasing levels of synaptic inhibition in D1-MSNs. By reducing the sensitivity and dynamic range of action potential firing in D1-MSNs, EAAC1 limits the propensity of mice to rapidly switch between behaviors associated with different reward probabilities. Together, these findings shed light on some important molecular and cellular mechanisms implicated with behavior flexibility in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Shergil Zahid
- SUNY Albany, Department of BiologyAlbanyUnited States
| | | | - Ian L Tschang
- SUNY Albany, Department of BiologyAlbanyUnited States
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6
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Moore S, Wang Z, Zhu Z, Sun R, Lee A, Charles A, Kuchibhotla KV. Revealing abrupt transitions from goal-directed to habitual behavior. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.05.547783. [PMID: 37461576 PMCID: PMC10349993 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.05.547783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
A fundamental tenet of animal behavior is that decision-making involves multiple 'controllers.' Initially, behavior is goal-directed, driven by desired outcomes, shifting later to habitual control, where cues trigger actions independent of motivational state. Clark Hull's question from 1943 still resonates today: "Is this transition abrupt, or is it gradual and progressive?"1 Despite a century-long belief in gradual transitions, this question remains unanswered2,3 as current methods cannot disambiguate goal-directed versus habitual control in real-time. Here, we introduce a novel 'volitional engagement' approach, motivating animals by palatability rather than biological need. Offering less palatable water in the home cage4,5 reduced motivation to 'work' for plain water in an auditory discrimination task when compared to water-restricted animals. Using quantitative behavior and computational modeling6, we found that palatability-driven animals learned to discriminate as quickly as water-restricted animals but exhibited state-like fluctuations when responding to the reward-predicting cue-reflecting goal-directed behavior. These fluctuations spontaneously and abruptly ceased after thousands of trials, with animals now always responding to the reward-predicting cue. In line with habitual control, post-transition behavior displayed motor automaticity, decreased error sensitivity (assessed via pupillary responses), and insensitivity to outcome devaluation. Bilateral lesions of the habit-related dorsolateral striatum7 blocked transitions to habitual behavior. Thus, 'volitional engagement' reveals spontaneous and abrupt transitions from goal-directed to habitual behavior, suggesting the involvement of a higher-level process that arbitrates between the two.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharlen Moore
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Zyan Wang
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ziyi Zhu
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ruolan Sun
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Whiting School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Angel Lee
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Adam Charles
- Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Whiting School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Kishore V. Kuchibhotla
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Whiting School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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7
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Something to Snack on: Can Dietary Modulators Boost Mind and Body? Nutrients 2023; 15:nu15061356. [PMID: 36986089 PMCID: PMC10056809 DOI: 10.3390/nu15061356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The last decades have shown that maintaining a healthy and balanced diet can support brain integrity and functionality, while an inadequate diet can compromise it. However, still little is known about the effects and utility of so-called healthy snacks or drinks and their immediate short-term effects on cognition and physical performance. Here, we prepared dietary modulators comprising the essential macronutrients at different ratios and a controlled balanced dietary modulator. We assessed, in healthy adult mice, the short-term effects of these modulators when consumed shortly prior to tests with different cognitive and physical demands. A high-fat dietary modulator sustained increased motivation compared to a carbohydrate-rich dietary modulator (p = 0.041) which had a diminishing effect on motivation (p = 0.018). In contrast, a high-carbohydrate modulator had an initial beneficial effect on cognitive flexibility (p = 0.031). No apparent effects of any of the dietary modulators were observed on physical exercise. There is increasing public demand for acute cognitive and motor function enhancers that can improve mental and intellectual performance in daily life, such as in the workplace, studies, or sports activities. Our findings suggest such enhancers should be tailored to the cognitive demand of the task undertaken, as different dietary modulators will have distinct effects when consumed shortly prior to the task.
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8
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Verdier A, Dominique N, Groussard D, Aldanondo A, Bathellier B, Bagur S. Enhanced perceptual task performance without deprivation in mice using medial forebrain bundle stimulation. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2022; 2:100355. [PMID: 36590697 PMCID: PMC9795331 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2022.100355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Perceptual decision-making tasks are essential to many fields of neuroscience. Current protocols generally reward deprived animals with water. However, balancing animals' deprivation level with their well-being is challenging, and trial number is limited by satiation. Here, we present electrical stimulation of the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) as an alternative that avoids deprivation while yielding stable motivation for thousands of trials. Using licking or lever press as a report, MFB animals learnt auditory discrimination tasks at similar speed to water-deprived mice. Moreover, they more reliably reached higher accuracy in harder tasks, performing up to 4,500 trials per session without loss of motivation. MFB stimulation did not impact the underlying sensory behavior since psychometric parameters and response times are preserved. MFB mice lacked signs of metabolic or behavioral stress compared with water-deprived mice. Overall, MFB stimulation is a highly promising tool for task learning because it enhances task performance while avoiding deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonin Verdier
- Institut de l’Audition, Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, INSERM, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Noémi Dominique
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, DT, Animalerie Centrale, 75724 Paris, France
| | - Déborah Groussard
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, DT, Animalerie Centrale, 75724 Paris, France
| | - Anna Aldanondo
- Institut de l’Audition, Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, INSERM, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Brice Bathellier
- Institut de l’Audition, Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, INSERM, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Sophie Bagur
- Institut de l’Audition, Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, INSERM, 75012 Paris, France
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9
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Moore S, Kuchibhotla KV. Slow or sudden: Re-interpreting the learning curve for modern systems neuroscience. IBRO Neurosci Rep 2022; 13:9-14. [PMID: 35669385 PMCID: PMC9163689 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2022.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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10
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Barkus C, Bergmann C, Branco T, Carandini M, Chadderton PT, Galiñanes GL, Gilmour G, Huber D, Huxter JR, Khan AG, King AJ, Maravall M, O'Mahony T, Ragan CI, Robinson ESJ, Schaefer AT, Schultz SR, Sengpiel F, Prescott MJ. Refinements to rodent head fixation and fluid/food control for neuroscience. J Neurosci Methods 2022; 381:109705. [PMID: 36096238 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2022.109705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The use of head fixation in mice is increasingly common in research, its use having initially been restricted to the field of sensory neuroscience. Head restraint has often been combined with fluid control, rather than food restriction, to motivate behaviour, but this too is now in use for both restrained and non-restrained animals. Despite this, there is little guidance on how best to employ these techniques to optimise both scientific outcomes and animal welfare. This article summarises current practices and provides recommendations to improve animal wellbeing and data quality, based on a survey of the community, literature reviews, and the expert opinion and practical experience of an international working group convened by the UK's National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs). Topics covered include head fixation surgery and post-operative care, habituation to restraint, and the use of fluid/food control to motivate performance. We also discuss some recent developments that may offer alternative ways to collect data from large numbers of behavioural trials without the need for restraint. The aim is to provide support for researchers at all levels, animal care staff, and ethics committees to refine procedures and practices in line with the refinement principle of the 3Rs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Barkus
- National Centre for Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), London, UK.
| | | | - Tiago Branco
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre, University College London, London, UK
| | - Matteo Carandini
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Paul T Chadderton
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | | | | | - Daniel Huber
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Adil G Khan
- Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Andrew J King
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Miguel Maravall
- Sussex Neuroscience, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Tina O'Mahony
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre, University College London, London, UK
| | - C Ian Ragan
- National Centre for Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), London, UK
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Andreas T Schaefer
- Sensory Circuits and Neurotechnology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK; Department of Neuroscience, Physiology & Pharmacology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Simon R Schultz
- Centre for Neurotechnology and Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | - Mark J Prescott
- National Centre for Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), London, UK
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Hernández-Navarro L, Hermoso-Mendizabal A, Duque D, de la Rocha J, Hyafil A. Proactive and reactive accumulation-to-bound processes compete during perceptual decisions. Nat Commun 2021; 12:7148. [PMID: 34880219 PMCID: PMC8655090 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-27302-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Standard models of perceptual decision-making postulate that a response is triggered in reaction to stimulus presentation when the accumulated stimulus evidence reaches a decision threshold. This framework excludes however the possibility that informed responses are generated proactively at a time independent of stimulus. Here, we find that, in a free reaction time auditory task in rats, reactive and proactive responses coexist, suggesting that choice selection and motor initiation, commonly viewed as serial processes, are decoupled in general. We capture this behavior by a novel model in which proactive and reactive responses are triggered whenever either of two competing processes, respectively Action Initiation or Evidence Accumulation, reaches a bound. In both types of response, the choice is ultimately informed by the Evidence Accumulation process. The Action Initiation process readily explains premature responses, contributes to urgency effects at long reaction times and mediates the slowing of the responses as animals get satiated and tired during sessions. Moreover, it successfully predicts reaction time distributions when the stimulus was either delayed, advanced or omitted. Overall, these results fundamentally extend standard models of evidence accumulation in decision making by showing that proactive and reactive processes compete for the generation of responses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Alexandre Hyafil
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Ramón Trias Fargas, 25, 08018, Barcelona, Spain.
- Center of Mathematical Research, Campus UAB Edifici C, 08193, Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain.
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12
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Abstract
We confirm that rats can act as rational economic agents, making choices about how much work to do to obtain a reward in a way that optimally trades off the value of the reward against the cost of the effort. Contrary to the notion that bigger rewards are more motivating, rats worked harder in economies where rewards were small, ensuring a sufficient minimum income of water. But they chose to earn and consume more water per day when water was “cheap” (available for little work). We present a mathematical model explaining why rats work when they do (surprisingly, not just when they are thirsty) and suggesting where in the brain animals might compute the current value of working for water. In the laboratory, animals’ motivation to work tends to be positively correlated with reward magnitude. But in nature, rewards earned by work are essential to survival (e.g., working to find water), and the payoff of that work can vary on long timescales (e.g., seasonally). Under these constraints, the strategy of working less when rewards are small could be fatal. We found that instead, rats in a closed economy did more work for water rewards when the rewards were stably smaller, a phenomenon also observed in human labor supply curves. Like human consumers, rats showed elasticity of demand, consuming far more water per day when its price in effort was lower. The neural mechanisms underlying such “rational” market behaviors remain largely unexplored. We propose a dynamic utility maximization model that can account for the dependence of rat labor supply (trials/day) on the wage rate (milliliter/trial) and also predict the temporal dynamics of when rats work. Based on data from mice, we hypothesize that glutamatergic neurons in the subfornical organ in lamina terminalis continuously compute the instantaneous marginal utility of voluntary work for water reward and causally determine the amount and timing of work.
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13
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Three Water Restriction Schedules Used in Rodent Behavioral Tasks Transiently Impair Growth and Differentially Evoke a Stress Hormone Response without Causing Dehydration. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0424-21.2021. [PMID: 34815297 PMCID: PMC8672445 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0424-21.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Water restriction is commonly used to motivate rodents to perform behavioral tasks; however, its effects on hydration and stress hormone levels are unknown. Here, we report daily body weight and bi-weekly packed red blood cell volume and corticosterone (CORT) in adult male rats across 80 days for three commonly used water restriction schedules. We also assessed renal adaptation to water restriction using postmortem histologic evaluation of renal medulla. A control group received ad libitum water. After one week of water restriction, rats on all restriction schedules resumed similar levels of growth relative to the control group. Normal hydration was observed, and water restriction did not drive renal adaptation. An intermittent restriction schedule was associated with an increase in CORT relative to the control group. However, intermittent restriction evokes a stress response which could affect behavioral and neurobiological results. Our results also suggest that stable motivation in behavioral tasks may only be achieved after one week of restriction.
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14
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Jordan JT, McDermott KD, Frechou MA, Shtrahman M, Gonçalves JT. Treadmill-based task for assessing spatial memory in head-fixed mice. STAR Protoc 2021; 2:100770. [PMID: 34471907 PMCID: PMC8387801 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2021.100770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Several mouse in vivo neuronal recording techniques require head fixation. Head-fixed treadmill walking can be used to design tasks that enable the study of neural activity in the context of behavior. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for constructing a treadmill with tactile spatial cues, training mice on a rewarded behavioral task, and analyzing behavioral data. We discuss common problems and solutions we have developed to optimize training. Finally, we demonstrate how to test spatial memory performance using this task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake T. Jordan
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience and Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Kelsey D. McDermott
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience and Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - M. Agustina Frechou
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience and Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Matthew Shtrahman
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - J. Tiago Gonçalves
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience and Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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15
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Citric Acid Water as an Alternative to Water Restriction for High-Yield Mouse Behavior. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0230-20.2020. [PMID: 33431508 PMCID: PMC7890523 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0230-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Powerful neural measurement and perturbation tools have positioned mice as an ideal species for probing the neural circuit mechanisms of cognition. Crucial to this success is the ability to motivate animals to perform specific behaviors. One successful strategy is to restrict their water intake, rewarding them with water during a behavioral task. However, water restriction requires rigorous monitoring of animals’ health and hydration status and can be challenging for some mice. We present an alternative that allows mice more control over their water intake: free home-cage access to water, made slightly sour by a small amount of citric acid (CA). In a previous study, rats with free access to CA water readily performed a behavioral task for water rewards, although completing fewer trials than under water restriction (Reinagel, 2018). We here extend this approach to mice and confirm its robustness across multiple laboratories. Mice reduced their intake of CA water while maintaining healthy weights. Continuous home-cage access to CA water only subtly impacted their willingness to perform a decision-making task, in which they were rewarded with sweetened water. When free CA water was used instead of water restriction only on weekends, learning and decision-making behavior were unaffected. CA water is thus a promising alternative to water restriction, allowing animals more control over their water intake without interfering with behavioral performance.
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16
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Bernhard SM, Lee J, Zhu M, Hsu A, Erskine A, Hires SA, Barth AL. An automated homecage system for multiwhisker detection and discrimination learning in mice. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0232916. [PMID: 33264281 PMCID: PMC7710058 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Automated, homecage behavioral training for rodents has many advantages: it is low stress, requires little interaction with the experimenter, and can be easily manipulated to adapt to different experimental conditions. We have developed an inexpensive, Arduino-based, homecage training apparatus for sensory association training in freely-moving mice using multiwhisker air current stimulation coupled to a water reward. Animals learn this task readily, within 1–2 days of training, and performance progressively improves with training. We examined the parameters that regulate task acquisition using different stimulus intensities, directions, and reward valence. Learning was assessed by comparing anticipatory licking for the stimulus compared to the no-stimulus (blank) trials. At high stimulus intensities (>9 psi), animals showed markedly less participation in the task. Conversely, very weak air current intensities (1–2 psi) were not sufficient to generate rapid learning behavior. At intermediate stimulus intensities (5–6 psi), a majority of mice learned that the multiwhisker stimulus predicted the water reward after 24–48 hrs of training. Both exposure to isoflurane and lack of whiskers decreased animals’ ability to learn the task. Following training at an intermediate stimulus intensity, mice were able to transfer learning behavior when exposed to a lower stimulus intensity, an indicator of perceptual learning. Mice learned to discriminate between two directions of stimulation rapidly and accurately, even when the angular distance between the stimuli was <15 degrees. Switching the reward to a more desirable reward, aspartame, had little effect on learning trajectory. Our results show that a tactile association task in an automated homecage environment can be monitored by anticipatory licking to reveal rapid and progressive behavioral change. These Arduino-based, automated mouse cages enable high-throughput training that facilitate analysis of large numbers of genetically modified mice with targeted manipulations of neural activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M. Bernhard
- Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jiseok Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Mo Zhu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Alex Hsu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Andrew Erskine
- Department of Biological Sciences, Section of Neurobiology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Samuel A. Hires
- Department of Biological Sciences, Section of Neurobiology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Alison L. Barth
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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17
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Buscher N, Ojeda A, Francoeur M, Hulyalkar S, Claros C, Tang T, Terry A, Gupta A, Fakhraei L, Ramanathan DS. Open-source raspberry Pi-based operant box for translational behavioral testing in rodents. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 342:108761. [PMID: 32479970 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rodents have been used for decades to probe neural circuits involved in behavior. Increasingly, attempts have been developed to standardize training paradigms across labs; and to use visual/auditory paradigms that can be also tested in humans. Commercially available systems are expensive and thus do not scale easily, and are not optimized for electrophysiology. NEW METHOD Using the rich open-source technology built around Raspberry Pi, we were able to develop an inexpensive (<$1000) visual-screen based operant chamber with electrophysiological and optogenetic compatibility. The chamber is operated within MATLAB/Simulink, a commonly used scientific programming language allowing for rapid customization. RESULTS Here, we describe and provide all relevant details needed to develop and produce these chambers, and show examples of behavior and electrophysiology data collected using these chambers. We also include all of the tools needed to allow readers to build and develop their own boxes (CAD models for 3D printing and laser-cutting; PCB-board design; all bill of materials for required parts and supplies, and some examples of Simulink models to operate the boxes). COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS The new boxes are far more cost-effective than commercially available environments and allow for the combination of automated behavioral testing with electrophysiological read-outs with high temporal precision. CONCLUSION These open-source boxes can be used for labs interested in developing high-throughput visual/auditory behavioral assays for ∼ 10th the cost of commercial systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Buscher
- Mental Health Service, VA San Diego Healthcare Syst., San Diego, CA 92161, United States; Dept. of Psychiatry, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - A Ojeda
- Dept. of Psychiatry, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States; Dept. of Electrical & Computer Engin., UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - M Francoeur
- Mental Health Service, VA San Diego Healthcare Syst., San Diego, CA 92161, United States; Dept. of Psychiatry, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - S Hulyalkar
- Mental Health Service, VA San Diego Healthcare Syst., San Diego, CA 92161, United States; Dept. of Psychiatry, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - C Claros
- Mental Health Service, VA San Diego Healthcare Syst., San Diego, CA 92161, United States; Dept. of Psychiatry, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - T Tang
- Mental Health Service, VA San Diego Healthcare Syst., San Diego, CA 92161, United States; Dept. of Psychiatry, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - A Terry
- Mental Health Service, VA San Diego Healthcare Syst., San Diego, CA 92161, United States; Dept. of Psychiatry, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - A Gupta
- Mental Health Service, VA San Diego Healthcare Syst., San Diego, CA 92161, United States; Dept. of Psychiatry, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - L Fakhraei
- Mental Health Service, VA San Diego Healthcare Syst., San Diego, CA 92161, United States; Dept. of Psychiatry, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - D S Ramanathan
- Mental Health Service, VA San Diego Healthcare Syst., San Diego, CA 92161, United States; Dept. of Psychiatry, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States.
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18
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Khajei S, Shalchyan V, Daliri MR. Ratbot navigation using deep brain stimulation in ventral posteromedial nucleus. Bioengineered 2019; 10:250-260. [PMID: 31204562 PMCID: PMC6592397 DOI: 10.1080/21655979.2019.1631103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) is a medical-practical method and has been applied to solve many medical complications. Animal usage as sensors and actuators, mind-controlled machines, and animal navigation are some of the non-medical DBS applications. One of the brain areas used in ratbot navigation is the Ventral Posteromedial Nucleus (VPM), which creates non-volunteer head rotation. Rat training by water/food restriction can be used to create forward movement. In this study, a combination of VPM stimulation and water/food restriction has been employed to establish a complete navigation system. Five rats responded to VPM stimulations. However, with three of them, rats rotated to the same direction after the stimulations of either VPM side of the brain. Two rats rotated bilaterally, proportionate to the VPM stimulation side. These two rats were trained in a T-shape maze and became ratbots. The results of the 3-session test showed that their navigation performances were 96% and 86%, respectively. These ratbots are suitable for navigational purposes and are ready to complete the missions that are dangerous or impossible for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Khajei
- a Neuroscience & Neuroengineering Research Lab., Biomedical Engineering Department, School of Electrical Engineering , Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST) , Tehran , Iran
| | - Vahid Shalchyan
- a Neuroscience & Neuroengineering Research Lab., Biomedical Engineering Department, School of Electrical Engineering , Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST) , Tehran , Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Daliri
- a Neuroscience & Neuroengineering Research Lab., Biomedical Engineering Department, School of Electrical Engineering , Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST) , Tehran , Iran
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