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Khananshvili D. Neuronal and astrocyte NCX isoform/splice variants: How do they participate in Na + and Ca 2+ signalling? Cell Calcium 2023; 116:102818. [PMID: 37918135 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2023.102818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
NCX1, NCX2, and NCX3 gene isoforms and their splice variants are characteristically expressed in different regions of the brain. The tissue-specific splice variants of NCX1-3 isoforms show specific expression profiles in neurons and astrocytes, whereas the relevant NCX isoform/splice variants exhibit diverse allosteric modes of Na+- and Ca2+-dependent regulation. In general, overexpression of NCX1-3 genes leads to neuroprotective effects, whereas their ablation gains the opposite results. At this end, the partial contributions of NCX isoform/splice variants to neuroprotective effects remain unresolved. The glutamate-dependent Na+ entry generates Na+ transients (in response to neuronal cell activities), whereas the Na+-driven Ca2+ entry (through the reverse NCX mode) raises Ca2+ transients. This special mode of signal coupling translates Na+ transients into the Ca2+ signals while being a part of synaptic neurotransmission. This mechanism is of general interest since disease-related conditions (ischemia, metabolic stress, and stroke among many others) trigger Na+ and Ca2+ overload with deadly outcomes of downstream apoptosis and excitotoxicity. The recently discovered mechanisms of NCX allosteric regulation indicate that some NCX variants might play a critical role in the dynamic coupling of Na+-driven Ca2+ entry. In contrast, the others are less important or even could be dangerous under altered conditions (e.g., metabolic stress). This working hypothesis can be tested by applying advanced experimental approaches and highly focused computational simulations. This may allow the development of structure-based blockers/activators that can selectively modulate predefined NCX variants to lessen the life-threatening outcomes of excitotoxicity, ischemia, apoptosis, metabolic deprivation, brain injury, and stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Khananshvili
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.
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2
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Purushotham SS, Buskila Y. Astrocytic modulation of neuronal signalling. FRONTIERS IN NETWORK PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 3:1205544. [PMID: 37332623 PMCID: PMC10269688 DOI: 10.3389/fnetp.2023.1205544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal signalling is a key element in neuronal communication and is essential for the proper functioning of the CNS. Astrocytes, the most prominent glia in the brain play a key role in modulating neuronal signalling at the molecular, synaptic, cellular, and network levels. Over the past few decades, our knowledge about astrocytes and their functioning has evolved from considering them as merely a brain glue that provides structural support to neurons, to key communication elements. Astrocytes can regulate the activity of neurons by controlling the concentrations of ions and neurotransmitters in the extracellular milieu, as well as releasing chemicals and gliotransmitters that modulate neuronal activity. The aim of this review is to summarise the main processes through which astrocytes are modulating brain function. We will systematically distinguish between direct and indirect pathways in which astrocytes affect neuronal signalling at all levels. Lastly, we will summarize pathological conditions that arise once these signalling pathways are impaired focusing on neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yossi Buskila
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Campbelltown, NSW, Australia
- The MARCS Institute, Western Sydney University, Campbelltown, NSW, Australia
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3
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Fabbri R, Spennato D, Conte G, Konstantoulaki A, Lazzarini C, Saracino E, Nicchia GP, Frigeri A, Zamboni R, Spray DC, Benfenati V. The emerging science of Glioception: Contribution of glia in sensing, transduction, circuit integration of interoception. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 245:108403. [PMID: 37024060 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2023.108403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Interoception is the process by which the nervous system regulates internal functions to achieve homeostasis. The role of neurons in interoception has received considerable recent attention, but glial cells also contribute. Glial cells can sense and transduce signals including osmotic, chemical, and mechanical status of extracellular milieu. Their ability to dynamically communicate "listening" and "talking" to neurons is necessary to monitor and regulate homeostasis and information integration in the nervous system. This review introduces the concept of "Glioception" and focuses on the process by which glial cells sense, interpret and integrate information about the inner state of the organism. Glial cells are ideally positioned to act as sensors and integrators of diverse interoceptive signals and can trigger regulatory responses via modulation of the activity of neuronal networks, both in physiological and pathological conditions. We believe that understanding and manipulating glioceptive processes and underlying molecular mechanisms provide a key path to develop new therapies for the prevention and alleviation of devastating interoceptive dysfunctions, among which pain is emphasized here with more focused details.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Fabbri
- Institute for Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity (ISOF), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy; Department of Electrical, Electronic, and Information Engineering "Guglielmo Marconi", University of Bologna, viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Diletta Spennato
- Institute for Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity (ISOF), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy; Department of Bioscience, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, Centre of Excellence in Comparative Genomics, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, BA, Italy
| | - Giorgia Conte
- Institute for Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity (ISOF), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - Aikaterini Konstantoulaki
- Institute for Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity (ISOF), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy; Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician", University of Bologna, Via Selmi, 2, 40126 Bologna, BO, Italy
| | - Chiara Lazzarini
- Institute for Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity (ISOF), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - Emanuela Saracino
- Institute for Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity (ISOF), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - Grazia Paola Nicchia
- School of Medicine, Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sense Organs, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, BA, Italy; Department of Bioscience, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, Centre of Excellence in Comparative Genomics, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, BA, Italy
| | - Antonio Frigeri
- Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; Department of Bioscience, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, Centre of Excellence in Comparative Genomics, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, BA, Italy
| | - Roberto Zamboni
- Institute for Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity (ISOF), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - David C Spray
- Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
| | - Valentina Benfenati
- Institute for Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity (ISOF), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy.
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4
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The influence of astrocytic leaflet motility on ionic signalling and homeostasis at active synapses. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3050. [PMID: 36810879 PMCID: PMC9944253 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30189-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes display a highly complex, spongiform morphology, with their fine terminal processes (leaflets) exercising dynamic degrees of synaptic coverage, from touching and surrounding the synapse to being retracted from the synaptic region. In this paper, a computational model is used to reveal the effect of the astrocyte-synapse spatial relationship on ionic homeostasis. Specifically, our model predicts that varying degrees of astrocyte leaflet coverage influences concentrations of K+, Na+ and Ca2+, and results show that leaflet motility strongly influences Ca2+ uptake, as well as glutamate and K+ to a lesser extent. Furthermore, this paper highlights that an astrocytic leaflet that is in proximity to the synaptic cleft loses the ability to form a Ca2+ microdomain, whereas when the leaflet is remote from the synaptic cleft, a Ca2+ microdomain can form. This may have implications for Ca2+-dependent leaflet motility.
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5
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Ahmadpour N, Kantroo M, Stobart JL. Extracellular Calcium Influx Pathways in Astrocyte Calcium Microdomain Physiology. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1467. [PMID: 34680100 PMCID: PMC8533159 DOI: 10.3390/biom11101467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2021] [Revised: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are complex glial cells that play many essential roles in the brain, including the fine-tuning of synaptic activity and blood flow. These roles are linked to fluctuations in intracellular Ca2+ within astrocytes. Recent advances in imaging techniques have identified localized Ca2+ transients within the fine processes of the astrocytic structure, which we term microdomain Ca2+ events. These Ca2+ transients are very diverse and occur under different conditions, including in the presence or absence of surrounding circuit activity. This complexity suggests that different signalling mechanisms mediate microdomain events which may then encode specific astrocyte functions from the modulation of synapses up to brain circuits and behaviour. Several recent studies have shown that a subset of astrocyte microdomain Ca2+ events occur rapidly following local neuronal circuit activity. In this review, we consider the physiological relevance of microdomain astrocyte Ca2+ signalling within brain circuits and outline possible pathways of extracellular Ca2+ influx through ionotropic receptors and other Ca2+ ion channels, which may contribute to astrocyte microdomain events with potentially fast dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jillian L. Stobart
- College of Pharmacy, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, 750 McDermot Avenue, Winnipeg, MG R3E 0T5, Canada; (N.A.); (M.K.)
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6
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Augusto-Oliveira M, Arrifano GP, Takeda PY, Lopes-Araújo A, Santos-Sacramento L, Anthony DC, Verkhratsky A, Crespo-Lopez ME. Astroglia-specific contributions to the regulation of synapses, cognition and behaviour. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 118:331-357. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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7
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Cho J, Huh Y. Astrocytic Calcium Dynamics Along the Pain Pathway. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:594216. [PMID: 33192331 PMCID: PMC7596274 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.594216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes, once thought to be passive cells merely filling the space between neurons in the nervous system, are receiving attention as active modulators of the brain and spinal cord physiology by providing nutrients, maintaining homeostasis, and modulating synaptic transmission. Accumulating evidence indicates that astrocytes are critically involved in chronic pain regulation. Injury induces astrocytes to become reactive, and recent studies suggest that reactive astrocytes can have either neuroprotective or neurodegenerative effects. While the exact mechanisms underlying the transition from resting astrocytes to reactive astrocytes remain unknown, astrocytic calcium increase, coordinated by inflammatory molecules, has been suggested to trigger this transition. In this mini review article, we will discuss the roles of astrocytic calcium, channels contributing to calcium dynamics in astrocytes, astrocyte activations along the pain pathway, and possible relationships between astrocytic calcium dynamics and chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeiwon Cho
- Brain and Cognitive Science, Scranton College, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Yeowool Huh
- Department of Medical Science, College of Medicine, Catholic Kwandong University, Incheon, South Korea.,Translational Brain Research Center, Catholic Kwandong University, International St. Mary's Hospital, Incheon, South Korea
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Verkhratsky A, Semyanov A, Zorec R. Physiology of Astroglial Excitability. FUNCTION (OXFORD, ENGLAND) 2020; 1:zqaa016. [PMID: 35330636 PMCID: PMC8788756 DOI: 10.1093/function/zqaa016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Revised: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Classic physiology divides all neural cells into excitable neurons and nonexcitable neuroglia. Neuroglial cells, chiefly responsible for homeostasis and defense of the nervous tissue, coordinate their complex homeostatic responses with neuronal activity. This coordination reflects a specific form of glial excitability mediated by complex changes in intracellular concentration of ions and second messengers organized in both space and time. Astrocytes are equipped with multiple molecular cascades, which are central for regulating homeostasis of neurotransmitters, ionostasis, synaptic connectivity, and metabolic support of the central nervous system. Astrocytes are further provisioned with multiple receptors for neurotransmitters and neurohormones, which upon activation trigger intracellular signals mediated by Ca2+, Na+, and cyclic AMP. Calcium signals have distinct organization and underlying mechanisms in different astrocytic compartments thus allowing complex spatiotemporal signaling. Signals mediated by fluctuations in cytosolic Na+ are instrumental for coordination of Na+ dependent astrocytic transporters with tissue state and homeostatic demands. Astroglial ionic excitability may also involve K+, H+, and Cl-. The cyclic AMP signalling system is, in comparison to ions, much slower in targeting astroglial effector mechanisms. This evidence review summarizes the concept of astroglial intracellular excitability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Verkhratsky
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK,Achucarro Center for Neuroscience, Ikerbasque, 48011 Bilbao, Spain,Address correspondence to A.V. (e-mail: )
| | - Alexey Semyanov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117997, Russia,Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia,Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Robert Zorec
- Celica Biomedical, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia,Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology-Molecular Cell Physiology, Institute of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
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9
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Felix L, Delekate A, Petzold GC, Rose CR. Sodium Fluctuations in Astroglia and Their Potential Impact on Astrocyte Function. Front Physiol 2020; 11:871. [PMID: 32903427 PMCID: PMC7435049 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are the main cell type responsible for the regulation of brain homeostasis, including the maintenance of ion gradients and neurotransmitter clearance. These processes are tightly coupled to changes in the intracellular sodium (Na+) concentration. While activation of the sodium-potassium-ATPase (NKA) in response to an elevation of extracellular K+ may decrease intracellular Na+, the cotransport of transmitters, such as glutamate, together with Na+ results in an increase in astrocytic Na+. This increase in intracellular Na+ can modulate, for instance, metabolic downstream pathways. Thereby, astrocytes are capable to react on a fast time scale to surrounding neuronal activity via intracellular Na+ fluctuations and adjust energy production to the demand of their environment. Beside the well-documented conventional roles of Na+ signaling mainly mediated through changes in its electrochemical gradient, several recent studies have identified more atypical roles for Na+, including protein interactions leading to changes in their biochemical activity or Na+-dependent regulation of gene expression. In this review, we will address both the conventional as well as the atypical functions of astrocytic Na+ signaling, presenting the role of transporters and channels involved and their implications for physiological processes in the central nervous system (CNS). We will also discuss how these important functions are affected under pathological conditions, including stroke and migraine. We postulate that Na+ is an essential player not only in the maintenance of homeostatic processes but also as a messenger for the fast communication between neurons and astrocytes, adjusting the functional properties of various cellular interaction partners to the needs of the surrounding network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Felix
- Institute of Neurobiology, Heinrich Heine University Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Andrea Delekate
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Gabor C Petzold
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany.,Division of Vascular Neurology, Department of Neurology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Christine R Rose
- Institute of Neurobiology, Heinrich Heine University Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany
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10
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Rose CR, Ziemens D, Verkhratsky A. On the special role of NCX in astrocytes: Translating Na +-transients into intracellular Ca 2+ signals. Cell Calcium 2019; 86:102154. [PMID: 31901681 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2019.102154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
As a solute carrier electrogenic transporter, the sodium/calcium exchanger (NCX1-3/SLC8A1-A3) links the trans-plasmalemmal gradients of sodium and calcium ions (Na+, Ca2+) to the membrane potential of astrocytes. Classically, NCX is considered to serve the export of Ca2+ at the expense of the Na+ gradient, defined as a "forward mode" operation. Forward mode NCX activity contributes to Ca2+ extrusion and thus to the recovery from intracellular Ca2+ signals in astrocytes. The reversal potential of the NCX, owing to its transport stoichiometry of 3 Na+ to 1 Ca2+, is, however, close to the astrocytes' membrane potential and hence even small elevations in the astrocytic Na+ concentration or minor depolarisations switch it into the "reverse mode" (Ca2+ import/Na+ export). Notably, transient Na+ elevations in the millimolar range are induced by uptake of glutamate or GABA into astrocytes and/or by the opening of Na+-permeable ion channels in response to neuronal activity. Activity-related Na+ transients result in NCX reversal, which mediates Ca2+ influx from the extracellular space, thereby generating astrocyte Ca2+ signalling independent from InsP3-mediated release from intracellular stores. Under pathological conditions, reverse NCX promotes cytosolic Ca2+ overload, while dampening Na+ elevations of astrocytes. This review provides an overview on our current knowledge about this fascinating transporter and its special functional role in astrocytes. We shall delineate that Na+-driven, reverse NCX-mediated astrocyte Ca2+ signals are involved neurone-glia interaction. Na+ transients, translated by the NCX into Ca2+ elevations, thereby emerge as a new signalling pathway in astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine R Rose
- Institute of Neurobiology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Duesseldorf, 40225, Duesseldorf, Germany.
| | - Daniel Ziemens
- Institute of Neurobiology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Duesseldorf, 40225, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Alexei Verkhratsky
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK; Achucarro Centre for Neuroscience, IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48011, Bilbao, Spain
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11
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NCX activity generates spontaneous Ca 2+ oscillations in the astrocytic leaflet microdomain. Cell Calcium 2019; 86:102137. [PMID: 31838438 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2019.102137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Revised: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The synergy between synaptic Glu release and astrocytic Glu-Na+ symport is essential to the signalling function of the tripartite synapse. Here we used kinetic data of astrocytic Glu transporters (EAAT) and the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) to simulate Glu release, Glu uptake and subsequent Na+ and Ca2+ dynamics in the astrocytic leaflet microdomain following single release event. Model simulations show that Glu-Na+ symport differently affect intracellular [Na+] in synapses with different extent of astrocytic coverage. Surprisingly, NCX activity alone has been shown to generate markedly stable, spontaneous Ca2+ oscillation in the astrocytic leaflet. These on-going oscillations appear when NCX operates either in the forward or reverse direction. We conjecture that intrinsic NCX activity may play a prominent role in the generation of astrocytic Ca2+ oscillations.
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12
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Verkhratsky A, Rose CR. Na +-dependent transporters: The backbone of astroglial homeostatic function. Cell Calcium 2019; 85:102136. [PMID: 31835178 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2019.102136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2019] [Revised: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Astrocytes are the principal homeostatic cells of the central nerves system (CNS) that support the CNS function at all levels of organisation, from molecular to organ. Several fundamental homeostatic functions of astrocytes are mediated through plasmalemmal pumps and transporters; most of which are also regulated by the transplasmalemmal gradient of Na+ ions. Neuronal activity as well as mechanical or chemical stimulation of astrocytes trigger plasmalemmal Na+ fluxes, which in turn generate spatio-temporally organised transient changes in the cytosolic Na+ concentration, which represent the substrate of astroglial Na+ signalling. Astroglial Na+ signals link and coordinate neuronal activity and CNS homeostatic demands with the astroglial homeostatic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Verkhratsky
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK; Achucarro Centre for Neuroscience, IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48011, Bilbao, Spain.
| | - Christine R Rose
- Institute of Neurobiology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstrasse 1, D-40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
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