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Leong LM, Storace DA. Imaging different cell populations in the mouse olfactory bulb using the genetically encoded voltage indicator ArcLight. NEUROPHOTONICS 2024; 11:033402. [PMID: 38288247 PMCID: PMC10823906 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.11.3.033402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
Genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) are protein-based optical sensors that allow for measurements from genetically defined populations of neurons. Although in vivo imaging in the mammalian brain with early generation GEVIs was difficult due to poor membrane expression and low signal-to-noise ratio, newer and more sensitive GEVIs have begun to make them useful for answering fundamental questions in neuroscience. We discuss principles of imaging using GEVIs and genetically encoded calcium indicators, both useful tools for in vivo imaging of neuronal activity, and review some of the recent mechanistic advances that have led to GEVI improvements. We provide an overview of the mouse olfactory bulb (OB) and discuss recent studies using the GEVI ArcLight to study different cell types within the bulb using both widefield and two-photon microscopy. Specific emphasis is placed on using GEVIs to begin to study the principles of concentration coding in the OB, how to interpret the optical signals from population measurements in the in vivo brain, and future developments that will push the field forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Min Leong
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, Florida, United States
| | - Douglas A. Storace
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, Florida, United States
- Florida State University, Program in Neuroscience, Tallahassee, Florida, United States
- Florida State University, Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Tallahassee, Florida, United States
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2
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Aseyev N, Ivanova V, Balaban P, Nikitin E. Current Practice in Using Voltage Imaging to Record Fast Neuronal Activity: Successful Examples from Invertebrate to Mammalian Studies. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:648. [PMID: 37367013 DOI: 10.3390/bios13060648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
The optical imaging of neuronal activity with potentiometric probes has been credited with being able to address key questions in neuroscience via the simultaneous recording of many neurons. This technique, which was pioneered 50 years ago, has allowed researchers to study the dynamics of neural activity, from tiny subthreshold synaptic events in the axon and dendrites at the subcellular level to the fluctuation of field potentials and how they spread across large areas of the brain. Initially, synthetic voltage-sensitive dyes (VSDs) were applied directly to brain tissue via staining, but recent advances in transgenic methods now allow the expression of genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs), specifically in selected neuron types. However, voltage imaging is technically difficult and limited by several methodological constraints that determine its applicability in a given type of experiment. The prevalence of this method is far from being comparable to patch clamp voltage recording or similar routine methods in neuroscience research. There are more than twice as many studies on VSDs as there are on GEVIs. As can be seen from the majority of the papers, most of them are either methodological ones or reviews. However, potentiometric imaging is able to address key questions in neuroscience by recording most or many neurons simultaneously, thus providing unique information that cannot be obtained via other methods. Different types of optical voltage indicators have their advantages and limitations, which we focus on in detail. Here, we summarize the experience of the scientific community in the application of voltage imaging and try to evaluate the contribution of this method to neuroscience research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay Aseyev
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5A, Moscow 117485, Russia
| | - Violetta Ivanova
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5A, Moscow 117485, Russia
| | - Pavel Balaban
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5A, Moscow 117485, Russia
| | - Evgeny Nikitin
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5A, Moscow 117485, Russia
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Zhu MH, Jogdand AH, Jang J, Nagella SC, Das B, Milosevic MM, Yan R, Antic SD. Evoked Cortical Depolarizations Before and After the Amyloid Plaque Accumulation: Voltage Imaging Study. J Alzheimers Dis 2022; 88:1443-1458. [PMID: 35811528 PMCID: PMC10493004 DOI: 10.3233/jad-220249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Alzheimer's disease (AD), synaptic dysfunction is thought to occur many years before the onset of cognitive decline. OBJECTIVE Detecting synaptic dysfunctions at the earliest stage of AD would be desirable in both clinic and research settings. METHODS Population voltage imaging allows monitoring of synaptic depolarizations, to which calcium imaging is relatively blind. We developed an AD mouse model (APPswe/PS1dE9 background) expressing a genetically-encoded voltage indicator (GEVI) in the neocortex. GEVI was restricted to the excitatory pyramidal neurons (unlike the voltage-sensitive dyes). RESULTS Expression of GEVI did not disrupt AD model formation of amyloid plaques. GEVI expression was stable in both AD model mice and Control (healthy) littermates (CTRL) over 247 days postnatal. Brain slices were stimulated in layer 2/3. From the evoked voltage waveforms, we extracted several parameters for comparison AD versus CTRL. Some parameters (e.g., temporal summation, refractoriness, and peak latency) were weak predictors, while other parameters (e.g., signal amplitude, attenuation with distance, and duration (half-width) of the evoked transients) were stronger predictors of the AD condition. Around postnatal age 150 days (P150) and especially at P200, synaptically-evoked voltage signals in brain slices were weaker in the AD groups versus the age- and sex-matched CTRL groups, suggesting an AD-mediated synaptic weakening that coincides with the accumulation of plaques. However, at the youngest ages examined, P40 and P80, the AD groups showed differentially stronger signals, suggesting "hyperexcitability" prior to the formation of plaques. CONCLUSION Our results indicate bidirectional alterations in cortical physiology in AD model mice; occurring both prior (P40-80), and after (P150-200) the amyloid deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Hong Zhu
- Department of Neuroscience, UConn Health, School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Aditi H Jogdand
- Department of Neuroscience, UConn Health, School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Jinyoung Jang
- Department of Neuroscience, UConn Health, School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Sai C Nagella
- Department of Neuroscience, UConn Health, School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Brati Das
- Department of Neuroscience, UConn Health, School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Milena M Milosevic
- Department of Neuroscience, UConn Health, School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Riqiang Yan
- Department of Neuroscience, UConn Health, School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Srdjan D Antic
- Department of Neuroscience, UConn Health, School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
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Jang J, Zhu MH, Jogdand AH, Antic SD. Studying Synaptically Evoked Cortical Responses ex vivo With Combination of a Single Neuron Recording (Whole-Cell) and Population Voltage Imaging (Genetically Encoded Voltage Indicator). Front Neurosci 2021; 15:773883. [PMID: 34776858 PMCID: PMC8579014 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.773883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In a typical electrophysiology experiment, synaptic stimulus is delivered in a cortical layer (1-6) and neuronal responses are recorded intracellularly in individual neurons. We recreated this standard electrophysiological paradigm in brain slices of mice expressing genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs). This allowed us to monitor membrane voltages in the target pyramidal neurons (whole-cell), and population voltages in the surrounding neuropil (optical imaging), simultaneously. Pyramidal neurons have complex dendritic trees that span multiple cortical layers. GEVI imaging revealed areas of the brain slice that experienced the strongest depolarization on a specific synaptic stimulus (location and intensity), thus identifying cortical layers that contribute the most afferent activity to the recorded somatic voltage waveform. By combining whole-cell with GEVI imaging, we obtained a crude distribution of activated synaptic afferents in respect to the dendritic tree of a pyramidal cell. Synaptically evoked voltage waves propagating through the cortical neuropil (dendrites and axons) were not static but rather they changed on a millisecond scale. Voltage imaging can identify areas of brain slices in which the neuropil was in a sustained depolarization (plateau), long after the stimulus onset. Upon a barrage of synaptic inputs, a cortical pyramidal neuron experiences: (a) weak temporal summation of evoked voltage transients (EPSPs); and (b) afterhyperpolarization (intracellular recording), which are not represented in the GEVI population imaging signal (optical signal). To explain these findings [(a) and (b)], we used four voltage indicators (ArcLightD, chi-VSFP, Archon1, and di-4-ANEPPS) with different optical sensitivity, optical response speed, labeling strategy, and a target neuron type. All four imaging methods were used in an identical experimental paradigm: layer 1 (L1) synaptic stimulation, to allow direct comparisons. The population voltage signal showed paired-pulse facilitation, caused in part by additional recruitment of new neurons and dendrites. "Synaptic stimulation" delivered in L1 depolarizes almost an entire cortical column to some degree.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Srdjan D. Antic
- Department of Neuroscience, Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, United States
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Grupi A, Shapira Z, Yudovich S, Degani-Katzav N, Weiss S. Point-localized, site-specific membrane potential optical recording by single fluorescent nanodiscs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 1:None. [PMID: 34568861 PMCID: PMC8448295 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpr.2021.100007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Nanodisc technology was implemented as a platform for voltage nanosensors. A fluorescence (Förster) resonance energy transfer (FRET)- based voltage-sensing scheme employing fluorescent nanodiscs and the hydrophobic ion dipicrylamine was developed and utilized to optically record membrane potentials on the single-nanodisc level. Ensemble and single-nanosensor recordings were demonstrated for HEK293 cells and primary cortical neuron cells. Conjugation of nanodiscs to anti-GABAA antibodies allowed for site-specific membrane potential measurements from postsynaptic sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asaf Grupi
- Department of Physics, Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials.,Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Zehavit Shapira
- Department of Physics, Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials.,Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Shimon Yudovich
- Department of Physics, Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials.,Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Nurit Degani-Katzav
- Department of Physics, Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials.,Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Shimon Weiss
- Department of Physics, Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials.,Institute for Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry.,California NanoSystems Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
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Martelli C, Storace DA. Stimulus Driven Functional Transformations in the Early Olfactory System. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:684742. [PMID: 34413724 PMCID: PMC8369031 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.684742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Olfactory stimuli are encountered across a wide range of odor concentrations in natural environments. Defining the neural computations that support concentration invariant odor perception, odor discrimination, and odor-background segmentation across a wide range of stimulus intensities remains an open question in the field. In principle, adaptation could allow the olfactory system to adjust sensory representations to the current stimulus conditions, a well-known process in other sensory systems. However, surprisingly little is known about how adaptation changes olfactory representations and affects perception. Here we review the current understanding of how adaptation impacts processing in the first two stages of the vertebrate olfactory system, olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs), and mitral/tufted cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Martelli
- Institute of Developmental Biology and Neurobiology, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Douglas Anthony Storace
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
- Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
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Population imaging discrepancies between a genetically-encoded calcium indicator (GECI) versus a genetically-encoded voltage indicator (GEVI). Sci Rep 2021; 11:5295. [PMID: 33674659 PMCID: PMC7935943 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84651-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetically-encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) are essential for studying brain function, while voltage indicators (GEVIs) are slowly permeating neuroscience. Fundamentally, GECI and GEVI measure different things, but both are advertised as reporters of “neuronal activity”. We quantified the similarities and differences between calcium and voltage imaging modalities, in the context of population activity (without single-cell resolution) in brain slices. GECI optical signals showed 8–20 times better SNR than GEVI signals, but GECI signals attenuated more with distance from the stimulation site. We show the exact temporal discrepancy between calcium and voltage imaging modalities, and discuss the misleading aspects of GECI imaging. For example, population voltage signals already repolarized to the baseline (~ disappeared), while the GECI signals were still near maximum. The region-to-region propagation latencies, easily captured by GEVI imaging, are blurred in GECI imaging. Temporal summation of GECI signals is highly exaggerated, causing uniform voltage events produced by neuronal populations to appear with highly variable amplitudes in GECI population traces. Relative signal amplitudes in GECI recordings are thus misleading. In simultaneous recordings from multiple sites, the compound EPSP signals in cortical neuropil (population signals) are less distorted by GEVIs than by GECIs.
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Milosevic MM, Jang J, McKimm EJ, Zhu MH, Antic SD. In Vitro Testing of Voltage Indicators: Archon1, ArcLightD, ASAP1, ASAP2s, ASAP3b, Bongwoori-Pos6, BeRST1, FlicR1, and Chi-VSFP-Butterfly. eNeuro 2020; 7:ENEURO.0060-20.2020. [PMID: 32817120 PMCID: PMC7540930 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0060-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) could potentially be used for mapping neural circuits at the plane of synaptic potentials and plateau potentials-two blind spots of GCaMP-based imaging. In the last year alone, several laboratories reported significant breakthroughs in the quality of GEVIs and the efficacy of the voltage imaging equipment. One major obstacle of using well performing GEVIs in the pursuit of interesting biological data is the process of transferring GEVIs between laboratories, as their reported qualities (e.g., membrane targeting, brightness, sensitivity, optical signal quality) are often difficult to reproduce outside of the laboratory of the GEVI origin. We have tested eight available GEVIs (Archon1, ArcLightD, ASAP1, ASAP2s, ASAP3b, Bongwoori-Pos6, FlicR1, and chi-VSFP-Butterfly) and two voltage-sensitive dyes (BeRST1 and di-4-ANEPPS). We used the same microscope, lens, and optical detector, while the light sources were interchanged. GEVI voltage imaging was attempted in the following three preparations: (1) cultured neurons, (2) HEK293 cells, and (3) mouse brain slices. Systematic measurements were successful only in HEK293 cells and brain slices. Despite the significant differences in brightness and dynamic response (ON rate), all tested indicators produced reasonable optical signals in brain slices and solid in vitro quality properties, in the range initially reported by the creator laboratories. Side-by-side comparisons between GEVIs and organic dyes obtained in HEK293 cells and brain slices by a "third party" (current data) will be useful for determining the right voltage indicator for a given research application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena M Milosevic
- Institute for Systems Genomics, Department of Neuroscience, UConn School of Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
- Center for Laser Microscopy, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jinyoung Jang
- Institute for Systems Genomics, Department of Neuroscience, UConn School of Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Eric J McKimm
- Institute for Systems Genomics, Department of Neuroscience, UConn School of Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Mei Hong Zhu
- Institute for Systems Genomics, Department of Neuroscience, UConn School of Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Srdjan D Antic
- Institute for Systems Genomics, Department of Neuroscience, UConn School of Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
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9
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Liu Y, Lu Y, Chen G, Wang Q. Recent Progress of Hybrid Optical Probes for Neural Membrane Potential Imaging. Biotechnol J 2020; 15:e2000086. [PMID: 32662937 DOI: 10.1002/biot.202000086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The neural membrane potential of nerve cells is the basis of neural activity production, which controls advanced brain activities such as memory, emotion, and learning. In the past decades, optical voltage indicator has emerged as a promising tool to decode neural activities with high-fidelity and excellent spatiotemporal resolution. In particular, the hybrid optical probes can combine the advantageous photophysical properties of different components such as voltage-sensitive molecules, highly fluorescent fluorophores, membrane-targeting tags, and optogenetic materials, thus showing numerous advantages in improving the photoluminescence intensity, voltage sensitivity, photostability, and cell specificity of probes. In this review, the current state-of-the-art hybrid probes are highlighted, that are designed by using fluorescent proteins, organic dyes, and fluorescent nanoprobes as the fluorophores, respectively. Then, the design strategies, voltage-sensing mechanisms and the in vitro and in vivo neural activity imaging applications of the hybrid probes are summarized. Finally, based on the current achievements of voltage imaging studies, the challenges and prospects for design and application of hybrid optical probes in the future are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongyang Liu
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Key Laboratory of Functional Molecular Imaging Technology, Division of Nanobiomedicine and i-Lab, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Yaxin Lu
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Key Laboratory of Functional Molecular Imaging Technology, Division of Nanobiomedicine and i-Lab, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Guangcun Chen
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Key Laboratory of Functional Molecular Imaging Technology, Division of Nanobiomedicine and i-Lab, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Qiangbin Wang
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Key Laboratory of Functional Molecular Imaging Technology, Division of Nanobiomedicine and i-Lab, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China.,College of Materials Sciences and Opto-Electronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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Aydin AK, Haselden WD, Goulam Houssen Y, Pouzat C, Rungta RL, Demené C, Tanter M, Drew PJ, Charpak S, Boido D. Transfer functions linking neural calcium to single voxel functional ultrasound signal. Nat Commun 2020; 11:2954. [PMID: 32528069 PMCID: PMC7290037 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-16774-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional ultrasound imaging (fUS) is an emerging technique that detects changes of cerebral blood volume triggered by brain activation. Here, we investigate the extent to which fUS faithfully reports local neuronal activation by combining fUS and two-photon microscopy (2PM) in a co-registered single voxel brain volume. Using a machine-learning approach, we compute and validate transfer functions between dendritic calcium signals of specific neurons and vascular signals measured at both microscopic (2PM) and mesoscopic (fUS) levels. We find that transfer functions are robust across a wide range of stimulation paradigms and animals, and reveal a second vascular component of neurovascular coupling upon very strong stimulation. We propose that transfer functions can be considered as reliable quantitative reporters to follow neurovascular coupling dynamics. Neurovascular coupling refers to changes in cerebral blood flow in response to neuronal stimulation, but to what extent this change can report neuronal activation is not known. Here the authors develop transfer functions between neural calcium signals and functional ultrasound changes in blood volume in co-registered single voxel brain volumes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali-Kemal Aydin
- INSERM U1128, Laboratory of Neurophysiology and New Microscopy, Université de Paris, Paris, France.,INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - William D Haselden
- Medical Scientist Training Program and Neuroscience Graduate Program, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Yannick Goulam Houssen
- INSERM U1128, Laboratory of Neurophysiology and New Microscopy, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Christophe Pouzat
- MAP5, Mathématiques Appliquées Paris 5, CNRS UMR 8145, Paris, France
| | - Ravi L Rungta
- INSERM U1128, Laboratory of Neurophysiology and New Microscopy, Université de Paris, Paris, France.,INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Charlie Demené
- Physics for Medicine, ESPCI, INSERM, CNRS, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Mickael Tanter
- Physics for Medicine, ESPCI, INSERM, CNRS, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Patrick J Drew
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Serge Charpak
- INSERM U1128, Laboratory of Neurophysiology and New Microscopy, Université de Paris, Paris, France. .,INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.
| | - Davide Boido
- INSERM U1128, Laboratory of Neurophysiology and New Microscopy, Université de Paris, Paris, France. .,NeuroSpin, Bât 145, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique-Saclay Center, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
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