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Aria H, Rezaei M, Nazem S, Daraei A, Nikfar G, Mansoori B, Bahmanyar M, Tavassoli A, Vakil MK, Mansoori Y. Purinergic receptors are a key bottleneck in tumor metabolic reprogramming: The prime suspect in cancer therapeutic resistance. Front Immunol 2022; 13:947885. [PMID: 36072596 PMCID: PMC9444135 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.947885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
ATP and other nucleoside phosphates have specific receptors named purinergic receptors. Purinergic receptors and ectonucleotidases regulate various signaling pathways that play a role in physiological and pathological processes. Extracellular ATP in the tumor microenvironment (TME) has a higher level than in normal tissues and plays a role in cancer cell growth, survival, angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance. In this review, we investigated the role of purinergic receptors in the development of resistance to therapy through changes in tumor cell metabolism. When a cell transforms to neoplasia, its metabolic processes change. The metabolic reprogramming modified metabolic feature of the TME, that can cause impeding immune surveillance and promote cancer growth. The purinergic receptors contribute to therapy resistance by modifying cancer cells' glucose, lipid, and amino acid metabolism. Limiting the energy supply of cancer cells is one approach to overcoming resistance. Glycolysis inhibitors which reduce intracellular ATP levels may make cancer cells more susceptible to anti-cancer therapies. The loss of the P2X7R through glucose intolerance and decreased fatty acid metabolism reduces therapeutic resistance. Potential metabolic blockers that can be employed in combination with other therapies will aid in the discovery of new anti-cancer immunotherapy to overcome therapy resistance. Therefore, therapeutic interventions that are considered to inhibit cancer cell metabolism and purinergic receptors simultaneously can potentially reduce resistance to treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamid Aria
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Marzieh Rezaei
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Shima Nazem
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abdolreza Daraei
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Ghasem Nikfar
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
| | - Behnam Mansoori
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
| | - Maryam Bahmanyar
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
| | - Alireza Tavassoli
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
| | - Mohammad Kazem Vakil
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
| | - Yaser Mansoori
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
- Department of Medical Genetics, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
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Di Virgilio F, Falzoni S, Sarti AC, Chiozzi P, Vultaggio-Poma V, Giuliani AL. Modulation of Cell Energy Metabolism by the P2X7 Receptor. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2510:53-63. [PMID: 35776319 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2384-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
For many years the P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) was considered the prototypic cytolytic receptor due to its ability to cause dramatic changes in plasma membrane permeability, eventually leading to cell death. However, later studies revealed that controlled P2X7R activation has beneficial effects on cell metabolism and nowadays our perception of the physiological role of this receptor has radically changed. Some of the biochemical pathways underlying the trophic effect of the P2X7R are being unveiled, thus disclosing an unanticipated role of P2X7Rs in mitochondrial and glycolytic metabolism. We provide here an update of the effects of the P2X7R on cell energy metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Simonetta Falzoni
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Alba Clara Sarti
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Paola Chiozzi
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
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Rabelo ILA, Arnaud-Sampaio VF, Adinolfi E, Ulrich H, Lameu C. Cancer Metabostemness and Metabolic Reprogramming via P2X7 Receptor. Cells 2021; 10:1782. [PMID: 34359950 PMCID: PMC8305434 DOI: 10.3390/cells10071782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The heterogeneity of tumor cell mass and the plasticity of cancer cell phenotypes in solid tumors allow for the insurgence of resistant and metastatic cells, responsible for cancer patients' clinical management's main challenges. Among several factors that are responsible for increased cancer aggression, metabolic reprogramming is recently emerging as an ultimate cancer hallmark, as it is central for cancer cell survival and self-renewal, metastasis and chemoresistance. The P2X7 receptor, whose expression is upregulated in many solid and hematological malignancies, is also emerging as a good candidate in cancer metabolic reprogramming and the regulation of stem cell proliferation and differentiation. Metabostemness refers to the metabolic reprogramming of cancer cells toward less differentiated (CSCs) cellular states, and we believe that there is a strong correlation between metabostemness and P2X7 receptor functions in oncogenic processes. Here, we summarize important aspects of P2X7 receptor functions in normal and tumor tissues as well as essential aspects of its structure, regulation, pharmacology and its clinical use. Finally, we review current knowledge implicating P2X7 receptor functions in cancer-related molecular pathways, in metabolic reprogramming and in metabostemness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izadora Lorrany Alves Rabelo
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil; (I.L.A.R.); (V.F.A.-S.); (H.U.)
| | - Vanessa Fernandes Arnaud-Sampaio
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil; (I.L.A.R.); (V.F.A.-S.); (H.U.)
| | - Elena Adinolfi
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy;
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil; (I.L.A.R.); (V.F.A.-S.); (H.U.)
| | - Claudiana Lameu
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil; (I.L.A.R.); (V.F.A.-S.); (H.U.)
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4
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Mechanism of insulin resistance in obesity: a role of ATP. Front Med 2021; 15:372-382. [PMID: 34047935 DOI: 10.1007/s11684-021-0862-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Obesity increases the risk of type 2 diabetes through the induction of insulin resistance. The mechanism of insulin resistance has been extensively investigated for more than 60 years, but the essential pathogenic signal remains missing. Existing hypotheses include inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, hyperinsulinemia, hyperglucagonemia, glucotoxicity, and lipotoxicity. Drug discoveries based on these hypotheses are unsuccessful in the development of new medicines. In this review, multidisciplinary literature is integrated to evaluate ATP as a primary signal for insulin resistance. The ATP production is elevated in insulin-sensitive cells under obese conditions independent of energy demand, which we have named "mitochondrial overheating." Overheating occurs because of substrate oversupply to mitochondria, leading to extra ATP production. The ATP overproduction contributes to the systemic insulin resistance through several mechanisms, such as inhibition of AMPK, induction of mTOR, hyperinsulinemia, hyperglucagonemia, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Insulin resistance represents a feedback regulation of energy oversupply in cells to control mitochondrial overloading by substrates. Insulin resistance cuts down the substrate uptake to attenuate mitochondrial overloading. The downregulation of the mitochondrial overloading by medicines, bypass surgeries, calorie restriction, and physical exercise leads to insulin sensitization in patients. Therefore, ATP may represent the primary signal of insulin resistance in the cellular protective response to the substrate oversupply. The prevention of ATP overproduction represents a key strategy for insulin sensitization.
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Rivera AD, Chacon-De-La-Rocha I, Pieropan F, Papanikolau M, Azim K, Butt AM. Keeping the ageing brain wired: a role for purine signalling in regulating cellular metabolism in oligodendrocyte progenitors. Pflugers Arch 2021; 473:775-783. [PMID: 33712969 PMCID: PMC8076121 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-021-02544-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
White matter (WM) is a highly prominent feature in the human cerebrum and is comprised of bundles of myelinated axons that form the connectome of the brain. Myelin is formed by oligodendrocytes and is essential for rapid neuronal electrical communication that underlies the massive computing power of the human brain. Oligodendrocytes are generated throughout life by oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), which are identified by expression of the chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan NG2 (Cspg4), and are often termed NG2-glia. Adult NG2+ OPCs are slowly proliferating cells that have the stem cell-like property of self-renewal and differentiation into a pool of 'late OPCs' or 'differentiation committed' OPCs(COPs) identified by specific expression of the G-protein-coupled receptor GPR17, which are capable of differentiation into myelinating oligodendrocytes. In the adult brain, these reservoirs of OPCs and COPs ensure rapid myelination of new neuronal connections formed in response to neuronal signalling, which underpins learning and cognitive function. However, there is an age-related decline in myelination that is associated with a loss of neuronal function and cognitive decline. The underlying causes of myelin loss in ageing are manifold, but a key factor is the decay in OPC 'stemness' and a decline in their replenishment of COPs, which results in the ultimate failure of myelin regeneration. These changes in ageing OPCs are underpinned by dysregulation of neuronal signalling and OPC metabolic function. Here, we highlight the role of purine signalling in regulating OPC self-renewal and the potential importance of GPR17 and the P2X7 receptor subtype in age-related changes in OPC metabolism. Moreover, age is the main factor in the failure of myelination in chronic multiple sclerosis and myelin loss in Alzheimer's disease, hence understanding the importance of purine signalling in OPC regeneration and myelination is critical for developing new strategies for promoting repair in age-dependent neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea D Rivera
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
- Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Human Anatomy, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Francesca Pieropan
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Maria Papanikolau
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Kasum Azim
- Department of Neurology, Neuroregeneration, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Arthur M Butt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK.
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Sarti AC, Vultaggio-Poma V, Falzoni S, Missiroli S, Giuliani AL, Boldrini P, Bonora M, Faita F, Di Lascio N, Kusmic C, Solini A, Novello S, Morari M, Rossato M, Wieckowski MR, Giorgi C, Pinton P, Di Virgilio F. Mitochondrial P2X7 Receptor Localization Modulates Energy Metabolism Enhancing Physical Performance. FUNCTION (OXFORD, ENGLAND) 2021; 2:zqab005. [PMID: 35330818 PMCID: PMC8788778 DOI: 10.1093/function/zqab005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Basal expression of the P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) improves mitochondrial metabolism, Adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) synthesis, and overall fitness of immune and non-immune cells. We investigated P2X7R contribution to energy metabolism and subcellular localization in fibroblasts (mouse embryo fibroblasts and HEK293 human fibroblasts), mouse microglia (primary brain microglia, and the N13 microglia cell line), and heart tissue. The P2X7R localizes to mitochondria, and its lack (1) decreases basal respiratory rate, ATP-coupled respiration, maximal uncoupled respiration, resting mitochondrial potential, mitochondrial matrix Ca2+ level, (2) modifies expression pattern of oxidative phosphorylation enzymes, and (3) severely affects cardiac performance. Hearts from P2rx7-deleted versus wild-type mice are larger, heart mitochondria smaller, and stroke volume, ejection fraction, fractional shortening, and cardiac output, are significantly decreased. Accordingly, the physical fitness of P2X7R-null mice is severely reduced. Thus, the P2X7R is a key modulator of mitochondrial energy metabolism and a determinant of physical fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Clara Sarti
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of
Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | | | - Simonetta Falzoni
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of
Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Sonia Missiroli
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of
Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Anna Lisa Giuliani
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of
Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Paola Boldrini
- Center of Electronic Microscopy, University of
Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Massimo Bonora
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of
Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Francesco Faita
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research
Council, Pisa 56124, Italy
| | - Nicole Di Lascio
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research
Council, Pisa 56124, Italy
| | - Claudia Kusmic
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research
Council, Pisa 56124, Italy
| | - Anna Solini
- Department of Surgical, Medical, Molecular, and
Critical Area Pathology, University of Pisa, Pisa 56124, Italy
| | - Salvatore Novello
- Department of Biomedical and Specialty Surgical
Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Michele Morari
- Department of Biomedical and Specialty Surgical
Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Marco Rossato
- Department of Medicine, University of
Padova, Padova 35128, Italy
| | | | - Carlotta Giorgi
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of
Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Paolo Pinton
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of
Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Francesco Di Virgilio
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of
Ferrara, Ferrara 44121, Italy,Address correspondence to F.D.V. (e-mail:
)
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Purinergic Signaling Within the Tumor Microenvironment. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1270:73-87. [PMID: 33123994 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-47189-7_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating studies have clearly demonstrated high concentrations of extracellular ATP (eATP) within the tumor microenvironment (TME). Implications of these findings are multifold as ATP-mediated purinergic signaling has been shown to mediate a variety of cancer-related processes, including cell migration, resistance to cytotoxic therapy, and immune regulation. Broad roles of ATP within the tumor microenvironment are linked to the abundance of ATP-regulated purinergic receptors on cancer and stromal and various immune cell types, as well as on the importance of ATP release and signaling in the regulation of multiple cellular processes. ATP release and downstream purinergic signaling are emerging as a central regulator of tumor growth and an important target for therapeutic intervention. In this chapter, we summarize the major roles of purinergic signaling in the tumor microenvironment with a specific focus on its critical roles in the induction of immunogenic cancer cell death and immune modulation.
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de Oliveira M, Mathias LS, de Sibio MT, Noronha-Matos JB, Costa MA, Nogueira CR, Correia-de-Sá P. Pitfalls and challenges of the purinergic signaling cascade in obesity. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 182:114214. [PMID: 32905795 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Obesity is a worldwide health problem which have reached pandemic proportions, now also including low and middle-income countries. Excessive or abnormal fat deposition in the abdomen especially in the visceral compartment is tightly associated with a high metabolic risk for arterial hypertension, type II diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, musculoskeletal disorders (especially articular degeneration) and some cancers. Contrariwise, accumulation of fat in the subcutaneous compartment has been associated with a neutral metabolic impact, favoring a lower risk of insulin resistance. Obesity results more often from an avoidable imbalance between food consumption and energy expenditure. There are several recommended strategies for dealing with obesity, including pharmacological therapies, but their success remains incomplete and may not compensate the associated adverse effects. Purinergic signaling operated by ATP and its metabolite, adenosine, has attracted increasing attention in obesity. The extracellular levels of purines often reflect the energy status of a given cell population. Adenine nucleotides and nucleosides fine tuning control adipogenesis and mature adipocytes function via the activation of P2 and P1 purinoceptors, respectively. These features make the purinergic signaling cascade a putative target for therapeutic intervention in obesity and related metabolic syndromes. There are, however, gaps in our knowledge regarding the role of purines in adipocyte precursors differentiation and mature adipocytes functions, as well as their impact among distinct adipose tissue deposits (e.g. white vs. brown, visceral vs. subcutaneous), which warrants further investigations before translation to clinical trials can be made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriane de Oliveira
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu Medical School, District of Rubião Jr, s/n, 18618-000, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lucas Solla Mathias
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu Medical School, District of Rubião Jr, s/n, 18618-000, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Teresa de Sibio
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu Medical School, District of Rubião Jr, s/n, 18618-000, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - José Bernardo Noronha-Matos
- Laboratório de Farmacologia e Neurobiologia, Departamento de Imuno-Fisiologia e Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar - Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP); Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines (MedInUP), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar - Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP)
| | - Maria Adelina Costa
- Laboratório de Farmacologia e Neurobiologia, Departamento de Imuno-Fisiologia e Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar - Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP); Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines (MedInUP), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar - Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP); Departamento de Química, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar - Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP)
| | - Célia Regina Nogueira
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu Medical School, District of Rubião Jr, s/n, 18618-000, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Paulo Correia-de-Sá
- Laboratório de Farmacologia e Neurobiologia, Departamento de Imuno-Fisiologia e Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar - Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP); Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines (MedInUP), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar - Universidade do Porto (ICBAS-UP).
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9
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Coccurello R, Volonté C. P2X7 Receptor in the Management of Energy Homeostasis: Implications for Obesity, Dyslipidemia, and Insulin Resistance. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:199. [PMID: 32528404 PMCID: PMC7247848 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.00199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Whole-body energy metabolism entails the highly regulated balance between food intake, nutrient breakdown, energy generation (ATP), and energy storage for the preservation of vital functions and body mass. Purinergic signaling has attracted increasing attention in the regulatory mechanisms not only for the reverse processes of white adipose tissue lipogenesis and lipolysis, but also for brown adipocyte-dependent thermogenesis and leptin production. This regulatory role has remarkable implications in the handling of body's energy expenditure and energy reservoir. Hence, selected purinergic receptors can play a relevant function in lipid metabolism, endocrine activity, glucose uptake, ATP-dependent increased expression of uncoupling protein 1, and browning of adipose tissue. Indeed, purinergic P2 receptors regulate adipogenesis and lipid metabolism and are involved in adipogenic differentiation. In particular, the ionotropic ATP-activated P2X7 subtype is involved in fat distribution, as well as in the modulation of inflammatory pathways in white adipose tissue. Within this context, very recent evidence has established a direct function of P2X7 in energy metabolism. Specifically, either genetic deletion (P2X7 knockout mice) or subchronic pharmacological inhibition of the receptor produces a decrease of whole-body energy expenditure and, concurrently, an increase of carbohydrate oxidation. As further evidence, lipid accumulation, increased fat mass distribution, and weight gain are reported in P2X7-depleted mice. Conversely, the stimulation of P2X7 enhances energy expenditure. Altogether, this knowledge supports the role of P2X7 signaling in the fight against obesity and insulin resistance, as well as in the promotion of adaptive thermogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Coccurello
- Institute for Complex System (ISC), National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy
- Preclinical Neuroscience, European Center for Brain Research (CERC)/IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Cinzia Volonté
- Preclinical Neuroscience, European Center for Brain Research (CERC)/IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
- Institute for Systems Analysis and Computer Science, National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy
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