Exploration of Aberrant E3 Ligases Implicated in Alzheimer's Disease and Development of Chemical Tools to Modulate Their Function

Overview of a novel osmotin abolishes abnormal metabolic-associated adiponectin mechanism in Alzheimer's disease: Peripheral and CNS insights

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a degenerative brain disease that affects millions of people worldwide. It is caused by abnormalities in cholinergic neurons, oxidative stress, and inflammatory cascades. The illness is accompanied by personality changes, memory issues, and dementia. Metabolic signaling pathways help with fundamental processes like DNA replication and RNA transcription. Being adaptable is essential for both surviving and treating illness. The body's metabolic signaling depends on adipokines, including adiponectin (APN) and other adipokines secreted by adipose tissues. Energy homeostasis is balanced by adipokines, and nutrients. Overconsumption of nutrients messes with irregular signaling of adipokines, such as APN in both peripheral and brain which leads to neurodegeneration, such as AD. Despite the failure of traditional treatments like memantine and cholinesterase inhibitors, natural plant bioactive substances like Osmotin (OSM) have been given a focus as potential therapeutics due to their antioxidant properties, better blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability, excellent cell viability, and especially nanoparticle approaches. The review highlights the published preclinical literature regarding the role of OSM in AD pathology while there is a need for more research to investigate the hidden therapeutic potential of OSM which may open a new gateway and further strengthen its healing role in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration, especially AD.

Pirh2 modulates the mitochondrial function and cytochrome c-mediated neuronal death during Alzheimer's disease

Pirh2 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase known to regulate the DNA damage responses through ubiquitylation of various participating signaling factors. DNA damage is a key pathological contributor to Alzheimer's disease (AD), therefore, the role of Pirh2 was investigated in streptozotocin and oligomer Aβ1-42 induced rodent experimental model of AD. Pirh2 protein abundance increased during AD conditions, and transient silencing of Pirh2 inhibited the disease-specific pathological markers like level of p-Tau, βamyloid, acetylcholinesterase activity, and neuronal death. Biochemically, Pirh2 silencing significantly attenuated the oxidative stress, depleted mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c translocation from mitochondria to cytosol, and depleted mitochondrial complex-I activity, and ATP level. Pirh2 silencing also inhibited the altered level of VDAC1, hsp75, hexokinase1, t-Bid, caspase-9, and altered level of apoptotic proteins (Bcl-2, Bax). MALDI-TOF/TOF, co-immunoprecipitation, and UbcH13-linked ubiquitylation assay confirmed the interaction of Pirh2 with cytochrome c and the role of Pirh2 in ubiquitylation of cytochrome c, along with Pirh2-dependent altered proteasome activity. Additionally, Pirh2 silencing further inhibited the translocation of mitochondrion-specific endonuclease G and apoptosis-inducing factors to the nucleus and DNA damage. In conclusion, findings suggested the significant implication of Pirh2 in disease pathogenesis, particularly through impaired mitochondrial function, including biochemical alterations, translocation of cytochrome c, endonuclease G and apoptosis-inducing factor, DNA damage, and neuronal apoptosis.

Modulating Endoplasmic Reticulum Chaperones and Mutant Protein Degradation in GABRG2(Q390X) Associated with Genetic Epilepsy with Febrile Seizures Plus and Dravet Syndrome

A significant number of patients with genetic epilepsy do not obtain seizure freedom, despite developments in new antiseizure drugs, suggesting a need for novel therapeutic approaches. Many genetic epilepsies are associated with misfolded mutant proteins, including GABRG2(Q390X)-associated Dravet syndrome, which we have previously shown to result in intracellular accumulation of mutant GABAA receptor γ2(Q390X) subunit protein. Thus, a potentially promising therapeutic approach is modulation of proteostasis, such as increasing endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD). To that end, we have here identified an ERAD-associated E3 ubiquitin ligase, HRD1, among other ubiquitin ligases, as a strong modulator of wildtype and mutant γ2 subunit expression. Overexpressing HRD1 or knockdown of HRD1 dose-dependently reduced the γ2(Q390X) subunit. Additionally, we show that zonisamide (ZNS)-an antiseizure drug reported to upregulate HRD1-reduces seizures in the Gabrg2+/Q390X mouse. We propose that a possible mechanism for this effect is a partial rescue of surface trafficking of GABAA receptors, which are otherwise sequestered in the ER due to the dominant-negative effect of the γ2(Q390X) subunit. Furthermore, this partial rescue was not due to changes in ER chaperones BiP and calnexin, as total expression of these chaperones was unchanged in γ2(Q390X) models. Our results here suggest that leveraging the endogenous ERAD pathway may present a potential method to degrade neurotoxic mutant proteins like the γ2(Q390X) subunit. We also demonstrate a pharmacological means of regulating proteostasis, as ZNS alters protein trafficking, providing further support for the use of proteostasis regulators for the treatment of genetic epilepsies.

Breaking Bad Proteins-Discovery Approaches and the Road to Clinic for Degraders

Proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) describe compounds that bind to and induce degradation of a target by simultaneously binding to a ubiquitin ligase. More generally referred to as bifunctional degraders, PROTACs have led the way in the field of targeted protein degradation (TPD), with several compounds currently undergoing clinical testing. Alongside bifunctional degraders, single-moiety compounds, or molecular glue degraders (MGDs), are increasingly being considered as a viable approach for development of therapeutics, driven by advances in rational discovery approaches. This review focuses on drug discovery with respect to bifunctional and molecular glue degraders within the ubiquitin proteasome system, including analysis of mechanistic concepts and discovery approaches, with an overview of current clinical and pre-clinical degrader status in oncology, neurodegenerative and inflammatory disease.

Structural insights into the ubiquitylation strategy of the oligomeric CRL2FEM1B E3 ubiquitin ligase

Cullin-RING E3 ubiquitin ligase (CRL) family members play critical roles in numerous biological processes and diseases including cancer and Alzheimer's disease. Oligomerization of CRLs has been reported to be crucial for the regulation of their activities. However, the structural basis for its regulation and mechanism of its oligomerization are not fully known. Here, we present cryo-EM structures of oligomeric CRL2FEM1B in its unneddylated state, neddylated state in complex with BEX2 as well as neddylated state in complex with FNIP1/FLCN. These structures reveal that asymmetric dimerization of N8-CRL2FEM1B is critical for the ubiquitylation of BEX2 while FNIP1/FLCN is ubiquitylated by monomeric CRL2FEM1B. Our data present an example of the asymmetric homo-dimerization of CRL. Taken together, this study sheds light on the ubiquitylation strategy of oligomeric CRL2FEM1B according to substrates with different scales.

Recent Advances of Mitochondrial Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease: A Perspective of Mitochondrial Basic Events

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders and is characterized by a decrease in learning capacity, memory loss and behavioral changes. In addition to the well-recognized amyloid-β cascade hypothesis and hyperphosphorylated Tau hypothesis, accumulating evidence has led to the proposal of the mitochondrial dysfunction hypothesis as the primary etiology of AD. However, the predominant molecular mechanisms underlying the development and progression of AD have not been fully elucidated. Mitochondrial dysfunction is not only considered an early event in AD pathogenesis but is also involved in the whole course of the disease, with numerous pathophysiological processes, including disordered energy metabolism, Ca2+ homeostasis dysfunction and hyperactive oxidative stress. In the current review, we have integrated emerging evidence to summarize the main mitochondrial alterations- bioenergetic metabolism, mitochondrial inheritance, mitobiogenesis, fission- fusion dynamics, mitochondrial degradation, and mitochondrial movement- underlying AD pathogenesis; precisely identified the mitochondrial regulators; discussed the potential mechanisms and primary processes; highlighted the leading players; and noted additional incidental signaling pathway changes. This review may help to stimulate research exploring mitochondrial metabolically-oriented neuroprotection strategies in AD therapies, leading to a better understanding of the link between the mitochondrial dysfunction hypothesis and AD pathogenesis.

Pirh2 modulates amyloid-β aggregation through the regulation of glucose-regulated protein 78 and chaperone-mediated signaling

Amyloid-β (Aβ) protein aggregation in the brain is a pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) however, the underlying molecular mechanisms regulating amyloid aggregation are not well understood. Here, we studied the propitious role of E3 ubiquitin ligase Pirh2 in Aβ protein aggregation in view of its regulatory ligase activity in the ubiquitin-proteasome system employing both cellular and sporadic rodent models of AD. Pirh2 protein abundance was significantly increased during Streptozotocin (STZ) induced AD conditions, and transient silencing of Pirh2 significantly inhibited the Aβ aggregation and modified the dendrite morphology along with the substantial decrease in choline level in the differentiated neurons. MALDI-TOF/TOF, coimmunoprecipitation, and UbcH7-linked in vitro ubiquitylation analysis confirmed the high interaction of Pirh2 with chaperone GRP78. Furthermore, Pirh2 silencing inhibits the STZ induced altered level of endoplasmic reticulum stress and intracellular Ca2+ levels in neuronal N2a cells. Pirh2 silencing also inhibited the AD conditions related to the altered protein abundance of HSP90 and its co-chaperones which may collectively involve in the reduced burden of amyloid aggregates in neuronal cells. Pirh2 silencing further stabilized the nuclear translocation of phospho-Nrf2 and inhibited the altered level of autophagy factors. Taken together, our data indicated that Pirh2 is critically involved in STZ induced AD pathogenesis through its interaction with ER-chaperone GRP78, improves the neuronal connectivity, affects the altered level of chaperones, co-chaperones, & autophagic markers, and collectively inhibits the Aβ aggregation.

Dissecting the Relationship Between Neuropsychiatric and Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) and neuropsychiatric disorders (NPDs) are two common causes of death in elderly people, which includes progressive neuronal cell death and behavioral changes. NDDs include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and motor neuron disease, characterized by cognitive defects and memory impairment, whereas NPDs include depression, seizures, migraine headaches, eating disorders, addictions, palsies, major depressive disorders, anxiety, and schizophrenia, characterized by behavioral changes. Mounting evidence demonstrated that NDDs and NPDs share an overlapping mechanism, which includes post-translational modifications, the microbiota-gut-brain axis, and signaling events. Mounting evidence demonstrated that various drug molecules, namely, natural compounds, repurposed drugs, multitarget directed ligands, and RNAs, have been potentially implemented as therapeutic agents against NDDs and NPDs. Herein, we highlighted the overlapping mechanism, the role of anxiety/stress-releasing factors, cytosol-to-nucleus signaling, and the microbiota-gut-brain axis in the pathophysiology of NDDs and NPDs. We summarize the therapeutic application of natural compounds, repurposed drugs, and multitarget-directed ligands as therapeutic agents. Lastly, we briefly described the application of RNA interferences as therapeutic agents in the pathogenesis of NDDs and NPDs. Neurodegenerative diseases and neuropsychiatric diseases both share a common signaling molecule and molecular phenomenon, namely, pro-inflammatory cytokines, γCaMKII and MAPK/ERK, chemokine receptors, BBB permeability, and the gut-microbiota-brain axis. Studies have demonstrated that any alterations in the signaling mentioned above molecules and molecular phenomena lead to the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases, namely, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and neuropsychiatric disorders, such as bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, autism spectrum disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Potential roles of NEDD4 and NEDD4L and their utility as therapeutic targets in high‑incidence adult male cancers (Review)

The term 'cancer' refers to >100 disorders that progressively manifest over time and are characterized by uncontrolled cell division. Although malignant growth can occur in virtually any human tissue, the underlying mechanisms underlying all forms of cancer are consistent. The International Agency for Research on Cancer's annual GLOBOCAN 2020 report provided an update on the global cancer incidence and mortality. Excluding non-melanoma skin cancer, the report predicts that there will be 19.3 million new cancer cases and >10 million cancer-related fatalities in 2023. Lung, prostate, and colon cancers are the most prevalent and lethal cancers in males. It was recognized that post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins are necessary for almost all cellular biological processes, as well as in cancer development and metastasis to other bodily organs. Thus, PTMs have a considerable impact on how proteins behave. Various PTMs may have harmful roles by affecting the hallmarks of cancer, metabolism and the regulation of the tumor microenvironment. PTMs and genetic changes/mutations are essential in carcinogenesis and cancer development. A pivotal PTM mechanism is protein ubiquitination. Of note, the rate-limiting stage of the protein ubiquitination cascade is hypothesized to be E3-ligase-mediated ubiquitination. Numerous studies revealed that the neural precursor cell expressed developmentally downregulated protein 4 (NEDD4) E3 ligase is among the E3 ubiquitin ligases that have essential roles in cellular processes. It regulates protein degradation and substrate ubiquitination. In addition, it has been shown that NEDD4 primarily functions as an oncogene in various malignancies but can also act as a tumor suppressor in certain types of tumor. In the present review, the roles of NEDD4 as an anticancer protein in various high-incidence male malignancies and the significance of NEDD4 as a potential cancer therapeutic target are discussed. In addition, the targeting of NEDD4 as a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of human malignancies is explored.

Ubiquitin Engineering for Interrogating the Ubiquitin-Proteasome System and Novel Therapeutic Strategies

Protein turnover, a highly regulated process governed by the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis. Dysregulation of the UPS has been implicated in various diseases, including viral infections and cancer, making the proteins in the UPS attractive targets for therapeutic intervention. However, the functional and structural redundancies of UPS enzymes present challenges in identifying precise drug targets and achieving target selectivity. Consequently, only 26S proteasome inhibitors have successfully advanced to clinical use thus far. To overcome these obstacles, engineered peptides and proteins, particularly engineered ubiquitin, have emerged as promising alternatives. In this review, we examine the impact of engineered ubiquitin on UPS and non-UPS proteins, as well as on viral enzymes. Furthermore, we explore their potential to guide the development of small molecules targeting novel surfaces, thereby expanding the range of druggable targets.

Memory phase-specific genes in the Mushroom Bodies identified using CrebB-target DamID

The formation of long-term memories requires changes in the transcriptional program and de novo protein synthesis. One of the critical regulators for long-term memory (LTM) formation and maintenance is the transcription factor CREB. Genetic studies have dissected the requirement of CREB activity within memory circuits, however less is known about the genetic mechanisms acting downstream of CREB and how they may contribute defining LTM phases. To better understand the downstream mechanisms, we here used a targeted DamID approach (TaDa). We generated a CREB-Dam fusion protein using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster as model. Expressing CREB-Dam in the mushroom bodies (MBs), a brain center implicated in olfactory memory formation, we identified genes that are differentially expressed between paired and unpaired appetitive training paradigm. Of those genes we selected candidates for an RNAi screen in which we identified genes causing increased or decreased LTM.

Identification of YWHAH as a Novel Brain-Derived Extracellular Vesicle Marker Post Long-Term Midazolam Exposure during Early Development

Recently, the long-term use of sedative agents in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) has raised concerns about neurodevelopmental outcomes in exposed neonates. Midazolam (MDZ), a common neonatal sedative in the NICU, has been suggested to increase learning disturbances and cognitive impairment in children. However, molecular mechanisms contributing to such outcomes with long-term MDZ use during the early stages of life remain unclear. In this study, we for the first time elucidate the role of brain-derived extracellular vesicles (BDEVs), including mining the BDEV proteome post long-term MDZ exposure during early development. Employing our previously established rodent model system that mimics the exposure of MDZ in the NICU using an increasing dosage regimen, we isolated BDEVs from postnatal 21-days-old control and MDZ groups using a differential sucrose density gradient. BDEVs from the control and MDZ groups were then characterized using a ZetaView nanoparticle tracking analyzer and transmission electron microscopy analysis. Next, using RT-qPCR, we examined the expression of key ESCRT-related genes involved in EV biogenesis. Lastly, using quantitative mass spectrometry-based proteomics, we mined the BDEV protein cargo that revealed key differentially expressed proteins and associated molecular pathways to be altered post long-term MDZ exposure. Our study characterized the proteome in BDEV cargo from long-term MDZ exposure at early development. Importantly, we identified and validated the expression of YWHAH as a potential target for further characterization of its downstream mechanism and a potential biomarker for the early onset of neurodevelopment and neurodegenerative diseases. Overall, the present study demonstrated long-term exposure to MDZ at early development stages could influence BDEV protein cargo, which potentially impact neural functions and behavior at later stages of development.

Involvement of heterologous ubiquitination including linear ubiquitination in Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

In neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), the progressive accumulation of ubiquitin-positive cytoplasmic inclusions leads to proteinopathy and neurodegeneration. Along with the seven types of Lys-linked ubiquitin chains, the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC)-mediated Met1-linked linear ubiquitin chain, which activates the canonical NF-κB pathway, is also involved in cytoplasmic inclusions of tau in AD and TAR DNA-binding protein 43 in ALS. Post-translational modifications, including heterologous ubiquitination, affect proteasomal and autophagic degradation, inflammatory responses, and neurodegeneration. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in SHARPIN and RBCK1 (which encodes HOIL-1L), components of LUBAC, were recently identified as genetic risk factors of AD. A structural biological simulation suggested that most of the SHARPIN SNPs that cause an amino acid replacement affect the structure and function of SHARPIN. Thus, the aberrant LUBAC activity is related to AD. Protein ubiquitination and ubiquitin-binding proteins, such as ubiquilin 2 and NEMO, facilitate liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), and linear ubiquitination seems to promote efficient LLPS. Therefore, the development of therapeutic approaches that target ubiquitination, such as proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) and inhibitors of ubiquitin ligases, including LUBAC, is expected to be an additional effective strategy to treat neurodegenerative diseases.

DISC1 inhibits GSK3β activity to prevent tau hyperphosphorylation under diabetic encephalopathy

Diabetic encephalopathy (DE) is a common complication of type 2 diabetes (T2D), especially in those patients with long T2D history. Persistent high glucose (HG) stimulation leads to neuron damage and manifests like Alzheimer's disease's pathological features such as neurofilament tangle. However, the precise mechanism of high-glucose-induced tau hyperphosphorylation is not fully revealed. We here gave evidence that Disrupted in schizophrenia 1 protein (DISC1) could interact with glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) and inhibit its activity to prevent tau hyperphosphorylation. By using DB/DB mice as animal model and HG-treated N2a cell as cell model, we found that DISC1 was downregulated both in vivo and in vitro, complicated with Tau hyperphosphorylation and GSK3β activation. Further, we identified DISC1 interacted with GSK3β by its 198th-237th amino acid residues. Overexpression of full length DISC1 but not mutated DISC1 lacking this domain could prevent HG induced tau hyperphosphorylation. Taken together, our work revealed DISC1 could be an important negative modulators of tau phosphorylation, and suggested that preservation of DISC1 could prevent HG induced neuron damage.

Progress and Challenges in Targeted Protein Degradation for Neurodegenerative Disease Therapy

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are currently incurable diseases that cause progressive degeneration of nerve cells. Many of the disease-causing proteins of NDs are "undruggable" for traditional small-molecule inhibitors (SMIs). None of the compounds that attenuated the amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation process have entered clinical practice, and many phase III clinical trials of SMIs for Alzheimer's disease (AD) have failed. In recent years, emerging targeted protein degradation (TPD) technologies such as proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs), lysosome-targeting chimaeras (LYTACs), and autophagy-targeting chimeras (AUTACs) with TPD-assistive technologies such as click-formed proteolysis-targeting chimeras (CLIPTACs) and deubiquitinase-targeting chimera (DUBTAC) have developed rapidly. In vitro and in vivo experiments have also confirmed that TPD technology can target the degradation of ND pathogenic proteins, bringing hope for the treatment of NDs. Herein, we review the latest TPD technologies, introduce their targets and technical characteristics, and discuss the emerging TPD technologies with potential in ND research, with the hope of providing a new perspective for the development of TPD technology in the NDs field.

A Severe Dementia Syndrome Caused by Intron Retention and Cryptic Splice Site Activation in STUB1 and Exacerbated by TBP Repeat Expansions

Heterozygous pathogenic variants in the STIP1 homologous and U-box containing protein 1 (STUB1) gene have been identified as causes of autosomal dominant inherited spinocerebellar ataxia type 48 (SCA48). SCA48 is characterized by an ataxic movement disorder that is often, but not always, accompanied by a cognitive affective syndrome. We report a severe early onset dementia syndrome that mimics frontotemporal dementia and is caused by the intronic splice donor variant c.524+1G>A in STUB1. Impaired splicing was demonstrated by RNA analysis and in minigene assays of mutated and wild-type constructs of STUB1. The most striking consequence of this splicing impairment was retention of intron 3 in STUB1, which led to an in-frame insertion of 63 amino acids (aa) (p.Arg175_Glu176ins63) into the highly conserved coiled-coil domain of its encoded protein, C-terminus of HSP70-interacting protein (CHIP). To a lesser extent, activation of two cryptic splice sites in intron 3 was observed. The almost exclusively used one, c.524+86, was not predicted by in silico programs. Variant c.524+86 caused a frameshift (p.Arg175fs*93) that resulted in a truncated protein and presumably impairs the C-terminal U-box of CHIP, which normally functions as an E3 ubiquitin ligase. The cryptic splice site c.524+99 was rarely used and led to an in-frame insertion of 33 aa (p.Arg175_Glu176ins33) that resulted in disruption of the coiled-coil domain, as has been previously postulated for complete intron 3 retention. We additionally detected repeat expansions in the range of reduced penetrance in the TATA box-binding protein (TBP) gene by excluding other genes associated with dementia syndromes. The repeat expansion was heterozygous in one patient but compound heterozygous in the more severely affected patient. Therefore, we concluded that the observed severe dementia syndrome has a digenic background, making STUB1 and TBP important candidate genes responsible for early onset dementia syndromes.