1
|
Bharadwaj S, Groza Y, Mierzwicka JM, Malý P. Current understanding on TREM-2 molecular biology and physiopathological functions. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 134:112042. [PMID: 38703564 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM-2), a glycosylated receptor belonging to the immunoglobin superfamily and especially expressed in the myeloid cell lineage, is frequently explained as a reminiscent receptor for both adaptive and innate immunity regulation. TREM-2 is also acknowledged to influence NK cell differentiation via the PI3K and PLCγ signaling pathways, as well as the partial activation or direct inhibition of T cells. Additionally, TREM-2 overexpression is substantially linked to cell-specific functions, such as enhanced phagocytosis, reduced toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated inflammatory cytokine production, increased transcription of anti-inflammatory cytokines, and reshaped T cell function. Whereas TREM-2-deficient cells exhibit diminished phagocytic function and enhanced proinflammatory cytokines production, proceeding to inflammatory injuries and an immunosuppressive environment for disease progression. Despite the growing literature supporting TREM-2+ cells in various diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders and cancer, substantial facets of TREM-2-mediated signaling remain inadequately understood relevant to pathophysiology conditions. In this direction, herein, we have summarized the current knowledge on TREM-2 biology and cell-specific TREM-2 expression, particularly in the modulation of pivotal TREM-2-dependent functions under physiopathological conditions. Furthermore, molecular regulation and generic biological relevance of TREM-2 are also discussed, which might provide an alternative approach for preventing or reducing TREM-2-associated deformities. At last, we discussed the TREM-2 function in supporting an immunosuppressive cancer environment and as a potential drug target for cancer immunotherapy. Hence, summarized knowledge of TREM-2 might provide a window to overcome challenges in clinically effective therapies for TREM-2-induced diseases in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shiv Bharadwaj
- Laboratory of Ligand Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, BIOCEV Research Center, Průmyslová 595, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic.
| | - Yaroslava Groza
- Laboratory of Ligand Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, BIOCEV Research Center, Průmyslová 595, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic
| | - Joanna M Mierzwicka
- Laboratory of Ligand Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, BIOCEV Research Center, Průmyslová 595, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Malý
- Laboratory of Ligand Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, BIOCEV Research Center, Průmyslová 595, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Matos ADO, Dantas PHDS, Queiroz HAGDB, Silva-Sales M, Sales-Campos H. TREM-2: friend or foe in infectious diseases? Crit Rev Microbiol 2024; 50:1-19. [PMID: 36403150 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2022.2146481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-2 (TREM-2) is an immune receptor expressed on immune and non-immune cells, more frequently investigated in neurodegenerative disorders and considered a marker for microglia activation. In infectious diseases, the receptor was initially believed to be an anti-inflammatory molecule, opposing the inflammation triggered by TREM-1. Currently, TREM-2 is associated with different aspects in response to infectious stimuli, including the induction of bacterial phagocytosis and clearance, containment of exacerbated pro-inflammatory responses, induction of M2 differentiation and activation of Th1 lymphocytes, besides of neurological damage after viral infection. Here, we present and discuss results published in the last two decades regarding the expression, activation and functions of TREM-2 during the course of bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic infections. A surprisingly plasticity was observed regarding the roles of the receptor in the aforementioned contexts, which largely varied according to the cell/organ and pathogen type, besides influencing disease outcome. Therefore, our review aimed to critically overview the role of TREM-2 in infectious diseases, highlighting its potential to be used as a clinical biomarker or therapeutic target.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Marcelle Silva-Sales
- Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Martinez-Martin I, Crousilles A, Ochoa JP, Velazquez-Carreras D, Mortensen SA, Herrero-Galan E, Delgado J, Dominguez F, Garcia-Pavia P, de Sancho D, Wilmanns M, Alegre-Cebollada J. Titin domains with reduced core hydrophobicity cause dilated cardiomyopathy. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113490. [PMID: 38052212 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The underlying genetic defect in most cases of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), a common inherited heart disease, remains unknown. Intriguingly, many patients carry single missense variants of uncertain pathogenicity targeting the giant protein titin, a fundamental sarcomere component. To explore the deleterious potential of these variants, we first solved the wild-type and mutant crystal structures of I21, the titin domain targeted by pathogenic variant p.C3575S. Although both structures are remarkably similar, the reduced hydrophobicity of deeply buried position 3575 strongly destabilizes the mutant domain, a scenario supported by molecular dynamics simulations and by biochemical assays that show no disulfide involving C3575. Prompted by these observations, we have found that thousands of similar hydrophobicity-reducing variants associate specifically with DCM. Hence, our results imply that titin domain destabilization causes DCM, a conceptual framework that not only informs pathogenicity assessment of gene variants but also points to therapeutic strategies counterbalancing protein destabilization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ines Martinez-Martin
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), 28029 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Audrey Crousilles
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Hamburg Unit, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Juan Pablo Ochoa
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), 28029 Madrid, Spain; Heart Failure and Inherited Cardiac Diseases Unit, Department of Cardiology, Hospital Universitario Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda, IDIPHIM, CIBERCV, 28222 Madrid, Spain; Health in Code, 15008 A Coruña, Spain
| | | | - Simon A Mortensen
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Hamburg Unit, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Elias Herrero-Galan
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Delgado
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Fernando Dominguez
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), 28029 Madrid, Spain; Heart Failure and Inherited Cardiac Diseases Unit, Department of Cardiology, Hospital Universitario Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda, IDIPHIM, CIBERCV, 28222 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pablo Garcia-Pavia
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), 28029 Madrid, Spain; Heart Failure and Inherited Cardiac Diseases Unit, Department of Cardiology, Hospital Universitario Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda, IDIPHIM, CIBERCV, 28222 Madrid, Spain
| | - David de Sancho
- Polimero eta Material Aurreratuak: Fisika, Kimika eta Teknologia, Kimika Fakultatea, UPV/EHU, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastian, Euskadi, Spain; Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), 20018 Donostia-San Sebastian, Euskadi, Spain
| | - Matthias Wilmanns
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Hamburg Unit, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Essex AL, Huot JR, Deosthale P, Wagner A, Figueras J, Davis A, Damrath J, Pin F, Wallace J, Bonetto A, Plotkin LI. Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2 (TREM2) R47H Variant Causes Distinct Age- and Sex-Dependent Musculoskeletal Alterations in Mice. J Bone Miner Res 2022; 37:1366-1381. [PMID: 35575023 PMCID: PMC9307075 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.4572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies proposed the Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2 (TREM2), a receptor expressed in myeloid cells including microglia in brain and osteoclasts in bone, as a link between brain and bone disease. The TREM2 R47H variant is a known risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of dementia. To investigate whether altered TREM2 signaling could contribute to bone and skeletal muscle loss, independently of central nervous system defects, we used mice globally hemizygous for the TREM2 R47H variant (TREM2R47H/+ ), which do not exhibit AD pathology, and wild-type (WT) littermate control mice. Dxa/Piximus showed bone loss in female TREM2R47H/+ animals between 4 and 13 months of age and reduced cancellous and cortical bone (measured by micro-computed tomography [μCT]) at 13 months, which stalled out by 20 months of age. In addition, they exhibited decreased femoral biomechanical properties measured by three-point bending at 13 months of age, but not at 4 or 20 months. Male TREM2R47H/+ animals had decreased trabecular bone geometry but increased ultimate strain and failure force at 20 months of age versus WT. Only male TREM2R47H/+ osteoclasts differentiated more ex vivo after 7 days with receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL)/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) compared to WT littermates. Yet, estrogen receptor alpha expression was higher in female and male TREM2R47H/+ osteoclasts compared to WT mice. However, female TREM2R47H/+ osteoclasts expressed less complement 3 (C3), an estrogen responsive element, and increased protein kinase B (Akt) activity, suggesting altered estrogen signaling in TREM2R47H/+ cells. Despite lower bone volume/strength in TREM2R47H/+ mice, skeletal muscle function measured by plantar flexion and muscle contractility was increased in 13-month-old female mutant mice. Overall, these data demonstrate that an AD-associated TREM2 variant can alter bone and skeletal muscle strength in a sex-dimorphic manner independent of central neuropathology, potentially mediated through changes in osteoclastic intracellular signaling. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alyson L. Essex
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology & PhysiologyIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
- Roudebush Veterans Administration Medical CenterIndianapolisINUSA
- Indiana Center for Musculoskeletal HealthIndianapolisINUSA
| | - Joshua R. Huot
- Indiana Center for Musculoskeletal HealthIndianapolisINUSA
- Department of SurgeryIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
| | - Padmini Deosthale
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology & PhysiologyIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
- Roudebush Veterans Administration Medical CenterIndianapolisINUSA
| | - Alison Wagner
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology & PhysiologyIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
| | - Jorge Figueras
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology & PhysiologyIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
| | - Azaria Davis
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology & PhysiologyIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
| | - John Damrath
- Weldon School of Biomedical EngineeringPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
| | - Fabrizio Pin
- Indiana Center for Musculoskeletal HealthIndianapolisINUSA
- Department of SurgeryIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
- Simon Comprehensive Cancer CenterIndiana UniversityIndianapolisINUSA
| | - Joseph Wallace
- Roudebush Veterans Administration Medical CenterIndianapolisINUSA
- Indiana Center for Musculoskeletal HealthIndianapolisINUSA
- Department of Biomechanical EngineeringIndiana University‐Purdue University IndianapolisIndianapolisINUSA
| | - Andrea Bonetto
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology & PhysiologyIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
- Indiana Center for Musculoskeletal HealthIndianapolisINUSA
- Department of SurgeryIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
- Simon Comprehensive Cancer CenterIndiana UniversityIndianapolisINUSA
| | - Lilian I. Plotkin
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology & PhysiologyIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
- Roudebush Veterans Administration Medical CenterIndianapolisINUSA
- Indiana Center for Musculoskeletal HealthIndianapolisINUSA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
The role of Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2 in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Behav Brain Res 2022; 433:113977. [PMID: 35752274 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurological disorder marked by cardinal clinical symptoms such as rigor, tremor, and akinesia. Albeit a loss of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra pars compacta is causative for the movement impairments found in patients, molecular reasoning for this loss is still incomplete. In recent years, triggering factor expressed on myeloid cells (TREM2) gained attention in the field of neurodegeneration as it could be associated with different neurodegenerative disorders. Primarily identified as a risk factor in Alzheimer's disease, variants in TREM2 were linked to PD and multiple sclerosis, too. Expressed on phagocytic cells, such as macrophages and microglia, TREM2 puts the focus on inflammation associated conditions in PD and provides a molecular target that could at least partly explain the role of immune cells in PD. Here, we summarize expression patterns and molecular functions of TREM2, recapitulate on its role in inflammation, phagocytosis and cell survival, before turning to neurodegenerative disorders with an emphasis on PD.
Collapse
|
6
|
Dash R, Munni YA, Mitra S, Choi HJ, Jahan SI, Chowdhury A, Jang TJ, Moon IS. Dynamic insights into the effects of nonsynonymous polymorphisms (nsSNPs) on loss of TREM2 function. Sci Rep 2022; 12:9378. [PMID: 35672339 PMCID: PMC9174165 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-13120-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Single nucleotide variations in Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2 (TREM2) are associated with many neurodegenerative diseases, including Nasu-Hakola disease (NHD), frontotemporal dementia (FTD), and late-onset Alzheimer's disease because they disrupt ligand binding to the extracellular domain of TREM2. However, the effects of nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) in TREM2 on disease progression remain unknown. In this study, we identified several high-risk nsSNPs in the TREM2 gene using various deleterious SNP predicting algorithms and analyzed their destabilizing effects on the ligand recognizing region of the TREM2 immunoglobulin (Ig) domain by molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. Cumulative prediction by all tools employed suggested the three most deleterious nsSNPs involved in loss of TREM2 function are rs549402254 (W50S), rs749358844 (R52C), and rs1409131974 (D104G). MD simulation showed that these three variants cause substantial structural alterations and conformational remodeling of the apical loops of the TREM2 Ig domain, which is responsible for ligand recognition. Detailed analysis revealed that these variants substantially increased distances between apical loops and induced conformation remodeling by changing inter-loop nonbonded contacts. Moreover, all nsSNPs changed the electrostatic potentials near the putative ligand-interacting region (PLIR), which suggested they might reduce specificity or loss of binding affinity for TREM2 ligands. Overall, this study identifies three potential high-risk nsSNPs in the TREM2 gene. We propose further studies on the molecular mechanisms responsible for loss of TREM2 function and the associations between TREM2 nsSNPs and neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raju Dash
- Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju, 38066, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeasmin Akter Munni
- Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju, 38066, Republic of Korea
| | - Sarmistha Mitra
- Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju, 38066, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho Jin Choi
- Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju, 38066, Republic of Korea
| | - Sultana Israt Jahan
- Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Noakhali, 3814, Bangladesh
| | - Apusi Chowdhury
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, North-South University, Dhaka, 1229, Bangladesh
| | - Tae Jung Jang
- Department of Pathology, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju, 38066, Republic of Korea
| | - Il Soo Moon
- Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju, 38066, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Molecular and structural basis of interactions of vitamin D3 hydroxyderivatives with aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR): An integrated experimental and computational study. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 209:1111-1123. [PMID: 35421413 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.04.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
To better understand the molecular and structural basis underlying the interaction of vitamin D3 hydroxyderivatives with AhR, molecular simulation was used to probe the binding of 1,20(OH)2D3, 1,25(OH)2D3, 20,23(OH)2D3 and 20(OH)D3 to AhR. qPCR showed that vitamin D3 derivatives stimulate expression of cyp1A1 and cyp1B1 genes that are downstream targets of AhR signaling. These secosteroids stimulated the translocation of the AhR to the nucleus, as measured by flow cytometry and western blotting. Molecular dynamics simulations were used to model the binding of vitamin D3 derivatives to AhR to examine their influence on the structure, conformation and dynamics of the AhR ligand binding domain (LBD). Binding thermodynamics, conformation, secondary structure, dynamical motion and electrostatic potential of AhR were analyzed. The molecular docking scores and binding free energy were all favorable for the binding of D3 derivatives to the AhR. These established ligands and the D3 derivatives are predicted to have different patterns of hydrogen bond formation with the AhR, and varied residue conformational fluctuations and dynamical motion for the LBD. These changes could alter the shape, size and electrostatic potential distribution of the ligand binding pocket, contributing to the different binding affinities of AhR for the natural ligands and D3 derivatives.
Collapse
|
8
|
Shaw BC, Snider HC, Turner AK, Zajac DJ, Simpson JF, Estus S. An Alternatively Spliced TREM2 Isoform Lacking the Ligand Binding Domain is Expressed in Human Brain. J Alzheimers Dis 2022; 87:1647-1657. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-215602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Background: Genetic variants in TREM2 are strongly associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) risk but alternative splicing in TREM2 transcripts has not been comprehensively described. Objective: Recognizing that alternative splice variants can result in reduced gene expression and/or altered function, we sought to fully characterize splice variation in TREM2. Methods: Human blood and anterior cingulate autopsy tissue from 61 donors were used for end-point and quantitative PCR and western blotting to identify and quantify novel TREM2 isoforms. Results: In addition to previously described transcripts lacking exon 3 or exon 4, or retaining part of intron 3, we identified novel isoforms lacking exon 2, along with isoforms lacking multiple exons. Isoforms lacking exon 2 were predominant at approximately 10% of TREM2 mRNA in the brain. Expression of TREM2 and frequency of exon 2 skipping did not differ between AD samples and non-AD controls (p = 0.1268 and p = 0.4909, respectively). Further, these novel splice isoforms were also observed across multiple tissues with similar frequency (range 5.3 –13.0% ). We found that the exon 2 skipped isoform D2-TREM2 is translated to protein and localizes similarly to full-length TREM2 protein, that both proteins are primarily retained in the Golgi complex, and that D2-TREM2 is expressed in AD and non-AD brain. Conclusion: Since the TREM2 ligand binding domain is encoded by exon 2, and skipping this exon retains reading frame while conserving localization, we hypothesize that D2-TREM2 acts as an inhibitor of TREM2 and targeting TREM2 splicing may be a novel therapeutic pathway for AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Andrew K. Turner
- Department of Physiology and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Diana J. Zajac
- Department of Physiology and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - James F. Simpson
- Department of Physiology and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Steven Estus
- Department of Physiology and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Structural Consequence of Non-Synonymous Single-Nucleotide Variants in the N-Terminal Domain of LIS1. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23063109. [PMID: 35328531 PMCID: PMC8955593 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23063109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Disruptive neuronal migration during early brain development causes severe brain malformation. Characterized by mislocalization of cortical neurons, this condition is a result of the loss of function of migration regulating genes. One known neuronal migration disorder is lissencephaly (LIS), which is caused by deletions or mutations of the LIS1 (PAFAH1B1) gene that has been implicated in regulating the microtubule motor protein cytoplasmic dynein. Although this class of diseases has recently received considerable attention, the roles of non-synonymous polymorphisms (nsSNPs) in LIS1 on lissencephaly progression remain elusive. Therefore, the present study employed combined bioinformatics and molecular modeling approach to identify potential damaging nsSNPs in the LIS1 gene and provide atomic insight into their roles in LIS1 loss of function. Using this approach, we identified three high-risk nsSNPs, including rs121434486 (F31S), rs587784254 (W55R), and rs757993270 (W55L) in the LIS1 gene, which are located on the N-terminal domain of LIS1. Molecular dynamics simulation highlighted that all variants decreased helical conformation, increased the intermonomeric distance, and thus disrupted intermonomeric contacts in the LIS1 dimer. Furthermore, the presence of variants also caused a loss of positive electrostatic potential and reduced dimer binding potential. Since self-dimerization is an essential aspect of LIS1 to recruit interacting partners, thus these variants are associated with the loss of LIS1 functions. As a corollary, these findings may further provide critical insights on the roles of LIS1 variants in brain malformation.
Collapse
|
10
|
Soluble TREM2 inhibits secondary nucleation of Aβ fibrillization and enhances cellular uptake of fibrillar Aβ. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:2114486119. [PMID: 35082148 PMCID: PMC8812518 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2114486119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is a single-pass transmembrane receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily that is secreted in a soluble (sTREM2) form. Mutations in TREM2 have been linked to increased risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). A prominent neuropathological component of AD is deposition of the amyloid-β (Aβ) into plaques, particularly Aβ40 and Aβ42. While the membrane-bound form of TREM2 is known to facilitate uptake of Aβ fibrils and the polarization of microglial processes toward amyloid plaques, the role of its soluble ectodomain, particularly in interactions with monomeric or fibrillar Aβ, has been less clear. Our results demonstrate that sTREM2 does not bind to monomeric Aβ40 and Aβ42, even at a high micromolar concentration, while it does bind to fibrillar Aβ42 and Aβ40 with equal affinities (2.6 ± 0.3 µM and 2.3 ± 0.4 µM). Kinetic analysis shows that sTREM2 inhibits the secondary nucleation step in the fibrillization of Aβ, while having little effect on the primary nucleation pathway. Furthermore, binding of sTREM2 to fibrils markedly enhanced uptake of fibrils into human microglial and neuroglioma derived cell lines. The disease-associated sTREM2 mutant, R47H, displayed little to no effect on fibril nucleation and binding, but it decreased uptake and functional responses markedly. We also probed the structure of the WT sTREM2-Aβ fibril complex using integrative molecular modeling based primarily on the cross-linking mass spectrometry data. The model shows that sTREM2 binds fibrils along one face of the structure, leaving a second, mutation-sensitive site free to mediate cellular binding and uptake.
Collapse
|
11
|
Variant TREM2 Signaling in Alzheimer's Disease. J Mol Biol 2022; 434:167470. [PMID: 35120968 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2022.167470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia, accounting for as much as three-quarters of cases globally with individuals in low- and middle-income countries being worst affected. Numerous risk factors for the disease have been identified and our understanding of gene-environment interactions have shed light on several gene variants that contribute to the most common, sporadic form of Alzheimer's disease. Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is an important receptor that is crucial to the functioning of microglial cells, and variants of this protein have been found to be associated with a significantly increased risk of Alzheimer's disease. Several studies have elucidated the signaling processes involved in the normal functioning of the TREM2 receptor. However, current knowledge of the idiosyncrasies of the signaling processes triggered by stimulation of the variants of this receptor is limited. In this review, we examine the existing literature and highlight the effects that various receptor variants have on downstream signaling processes and discuss how these perturbations may affect physiologic processes in Alzheimer's disease. Despite the fact that this is a territory yet to be fully explored, the studies that currently exist report mostly quantitative effects on signaling. More mechanistic studies with the aim of providing qualitative results in terms of downstream signaling among these receptor variants are warranted. Such studies will provide better opportunities of identifying therapeutic targets that may be exploited in designing new drugs for the management of Alzheimer's disease.
Collapse
|
12
|
Martin W, Sheynkman G, Lightstone FC, Nussinov R, Cheng F. Interpretable artificial intelligence and exascale molecular dynamics simulations to reveal kinetics: Applications to Alzheimer's disease. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2022; 72:103-113. [PMID: 34628220 PMCID: PMC8860862 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The rapid increase in computing power, especially with the integration of graphics processing units, has dramatically increased the capabilities of molecular dynamics simulations. To date, these capabilities extend from running very long simulations (tens to hundreds of microseconds) to thousands of short simulations. However, the expansive data generated in these simulations must be made interpretable not only by the investigator who performs them but also by others as well. Here, we demonstrate how integrating learning techniques, such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, and neural networks, into analysis pipelines can reveal the kinetics of Alzheimer's disease (AD) protein aggregation. We review select AD targets, describe current simulation methods, and introduce learning concepts and their application in AD, highlighting limitations and potential solutions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William Martin
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| | - Gloria Sheynkman
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA
| | - Felice C Lightstone
- Biosciences and Biotechnology Division, Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Lab, Livermore, CA, 94550, USA
| | - Ruth Nussinov
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research in the Laboratory of Cancer Immunometabolism, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA; Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel
| | - Feixiong Cheng
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA; Department of Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA; Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Dash R, Mitra S, Munni YA, Choi HJ, Ali MC, Barua L, Jang TJ, Moon IS. Computational Insights into the Deleterious Impacts of Missense Variants on N-Acetyl-d-glucosamine Kinase Structure and Function. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:8048. [PMID: 34360815 PMCID: PMC8347710 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22158048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
An enzyme of the mammalian amino-sugar metabolism pathway, N-acetylglucosamine kinase (NAGK), that synthesizes N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc)-6-phosphate, is reported to promote dynein functions during mitosis, axonal and dendritic growth, cell migration, and selective autophagy, which all are unrelated to its enzyme activity. As non-enzymatic structural functions can be altered by genetic variation, we made an effort in this study aimed at deciphering the pathological effect of nonsynonymous single-nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) in NAGK gene. An integrated computational approach, including molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and protein-protein docking simulation, was used to identify the damaging nsSNPs and their detailed structural and functional consequences. The analysis revealed the four most damaging variants (G11R, G32R, G120E, and A156D), which are highly conserved and functional, positioned in both small (G11R and G32R) and large (G120E and A156D) domains of NAGK. G11R is located in the ATP binding region, while variants present in the large domain (G120E and A156D) were found to induce substantial alterations in the structural organizations of both domains, including the ATP and substrate binding sites. Furthermore, all variants were found to reduce binding energy between NAGK and dynein subunit DYNLRB1, as revealed by protein-protein docking and MM-GBSA binding energy calculation supporting their deleteriousness on non-canonical function. We hope these findings will direct future studies to gain more insight into the role of these variants in the loss of NAGK function and their role in neurodevelopmental disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raju Dash
- Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju 38066, Korea; (R.D.); (S.M.); (Y.A.M.); (H.J.C.)
| | - Sarmistha Mitra
- Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju 38066, Korea; (R.D.); (S.M.); (Y.A.M.); (H.J.C.)
| | - Yeasmin Akter Munni
- Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju 38066, Korea; (R.D.); (S.M.); (Y.A.M.); (H.J.C.)
| | - Ho Jin Choi
- Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju 38066, Korea; (R.D.); (S.M.); (Y.A.M.); (H.J.C.)
| | - Md. Chayan Ali
- Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Islamic University, Kushtia 7003, Bangladesh;
| | - Largess Barua
- Department of Pharmacy, BGC Trust University Bangladesh, Chittagong 4381, Bangladesh;
| | - Tae Jung Jang
- Department of Pathology, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju 38066, Korea;
| | - Il Soo Moon
- Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Gyeongju 38066, Korea; (R.D.); (S.M.); (Y.A.M.); (H.J.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Schoch KM, Ezerskiy LA, Morhaus MM, Bannon RN, Sauerbeck AD, Shabsovich M, Jafar-Nejad P, Rigo F, Miller TM. Acute Trem2 reduction triggers increased microglial phagocytosis, slowing amyloid deposition in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2100356118. [PMID: 34187891 PMCID: PMC8271763 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2100356118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous genetic variants within the TREM2 gene show a strong association with increased Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk. Amyloid beta-depositing mouse models haploinsufficient or null for Trem2 have identified important relationships among TREM2, microglia, and AD pathology; however, results are challenging to interpret in the context of varying microglial phenotypes and disease progression. We hypothesized that acute Trem2 reduction may alter amyloid pathology and microglial responses independent of genetic Trem2 deletion in mouse models. We developed antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) that potently but transiently lower Trem2 messenger RNA throughout the brain and administered them to APP/PS1 mice at varying stages of plaque pathology. Late-stage ASO-mediated Trem2 knockdown significantly reduced plaque deposition and attenuated microglial association around plaque deposits when evaluated 1 mo after ASO injection. Changes in microglial gene signatures 1 wk after ASO administration and phagocytosis measured in ASO-treated cells together indicate that microglia may be activated with short-term Trem2 reduction. These results suggest a time- and/or dose-dependent role for TREM2 in mediating plaque deposition and microglial responses in which loss of TREM2 function may be beneficial for microglial activation and plaque removal in an acute context.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Schoch
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110;
| | - Lubov A Ezerskiy
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Michaela M Morhaus
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Riley N Bannon
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Andrew D Sauerbeck
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Mark Shabsovich
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | | | - Frank Rigo
- Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Carlsbad, CA 92010
| | - Timothy M Miller
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110;
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Desale SE, Chidambaram H, Chinnathambi S. G-protein coupled receptor, PI3K and Rho signaling pathways regulate the cascades of Tau and amyloid-β in Alzheimer's disease. MOLECULAR BIOMEDICINE 2021; 2:17. [PMID: 35006431 PMCID: PMC8607389 DOI: 10.1186/s43556-021-00036-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by the presence of amyloid-β plaques in the extracellular environment and aggregates of Tau protein that forms neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in neuronal cells. Along with these pathological proteins, the disease shows neuroinflammation, neuronal death, impairment in the immune function of microglia and synaptic loss, which are mediated by several important signaling pathways. The PI3K/Akt-mediated survival-signaling pathway is activated by many receptors such as G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptor. The signaling pathway not only increases the survival of neurons but also regulates inflammation, phagocytosis, cellular protection, Tau phosphorylation and Aβ secretion as well. In this review, we focused on receptors, which activate PI3K/Akt pathway and its potential to treat Alzheimer's disease. Among several membrane receptors, GPCRs are the major drug targets for therapy, and GPCR signaling pathways are altered during Alzheimer's disease. Several GPCRs are involved in the pathogenic progression, phosphorylation of Tau protein by activation of various cellular kinases and are involved in the amyloidogenic pathway of amyloid-β synthesis. Apart from various GPCR signaling pathways, GPCR regulating/ interacting proteins are involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. These include several small GTPases, Ras homolog enriched in brain, GPCR associated sorting proteins, β-arrestins, etc., that play a critical role in disease progression and has been elaborated in this review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Smita Eknath Desale
- Neurobiology Group, Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL), Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune, 411008 India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002 India
| | - Hariharakrishnan Chidambaram
- Neurobiology Group, Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL), Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune, 411008 India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002 India
| | - Subashchandrabose Chinnathambi
- Neurobiology Group, Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL), Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune, 411008 India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002 India
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Kober DL, Stuchell-Brereton MD, Kluender CE, Dean HB, Strickland MR, Steinberg DF, Nelson SS, Baban B, Holtzman DM, Frieden C, Alexander-Brett J, Roberson ED, Song Y, Brett TJ. Functional insights from biophysical study of TREM2 interactions with apoE and Aβ 1-42. Alzheimers Dement 2020; 17:10.1002/alz.12194. [PMID: 33090700 PMCID: PMC8026773 DOI: 10.1002/alz.12194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-2 (TREM2) is an immune receptor expressed on microglia that also can become soluble (sTREM2). How TREM2 engages different ligands remains poorly understood. METHODS We used comprehensive biolayer interferometry (BLI) analysis to investigate TREM2 and sTREM2 interactions with apolipoprotein E (apoE) and monomeric amyloid beta (Aβ) (mAβ42). RESULTS TREM2 engagement of apoE was protein mediated with little effect of lipidation, showing slight affinity differences between isoforms (E4 > E3 > E2). Another family member, TREML2, did not bind apoE. Disease-linked TREM2 variants within a "basic patch" minimally impact apoE binding. Instead, TREM2 uses a unique hydrophobic surface to bind apoE, which requires the apoE hinge region. TREM2 and sTREM2 directly bind mAβ42 and potently inhibit Aβ42 polymerization, suggesting a potential role for soluble sTREM2 in preventing AD pathogenesis. DISCUSSION These findings demonstrate that TREM2 has at least two ligand-binding surfaces that might be therapeutic targets and uncovers a potential function for sTREM2 in directly inhibiting Aβ polymerization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L. Kober
- Molecular Microbiology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Melissa D. Stuchell-Brereton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Colin E. Kluender
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
- Biochemistry, Biophysics, and Structural Biology Program, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Hunter B. Dean
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer’s Disease Center, Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Michael R. Strickland
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Deborah F. Steinberg
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Samantha S. Nelson
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Berevan Baban
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - David M. Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
- Charles F. and Joanne Knight Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
- Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Carl Frieden
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
- Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Jennifer Alexander-Brett
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Erik D. Roberson
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer’s Disease Center, Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Yuhua Song
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Tom J. Brett
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
- Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
IL-4 and IL-10 promotes phagocytic activity of microglia by up-regulation of TREM2. Cytotechnology 2020; 72:589-602. [PMID: 32623621 DOI: 10.1007/s10616-020-00409-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-2 (TREM2) is an innate immune receptor that promotes phagocytosis by microglia. However, whether TREM2 is related to the stimulus-dependent phagocytic activity of microglia is unclear. In this study, the primary cultured microglia were stimulated with interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-4, and interleukin (IL)-10, respectively, and their phagocytic activity against microbeads and apoptotic neural stem cells (NSCs) was measured. TREM2 of microglia was detected by qPCR and western blotting. The TREM2 signal was blocked in microglia using the siRNA technique. The results showed that IL-4 or IL-10 treatment significantly increased the number of microglia gathered around the apoptotic neurosphere. IL-4 and IL-10 treatment also promoted phagocytosis of microbeads and apoptotic NSCs by primary cultured microglia. The TREM2 expression was up-regulated in IL-4- or IL-10- treated microglia. TREM2 siRNA treatment blocked the phagocytic activity of IL-4- or IL-10-treated microglia. In conclusion, these results indicated that IL-4 and IL-10 promote the phagocytic activity of microglia by the up-regulation of TREM2, which suggested a new potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative disease.
Collapse
|
18
|
Yang H, Ahmad ZA, Song Y. Molecular insight for the role of key residues of calreticulin in its binding activities: A computational study. Comput Biol Chem 2020; 85:107228. [DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2020.107228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|