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Zhang H, Fan S, Yang J, Yi J, Guan L, He H, Zhang X, Luo Y, Guan Q. Attention control training and transfer effects on cognitive tasks. Neuropsychologia 2024; 200:108910. [PMID: 38777117 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Attention control is the common element underlying different executive functions. The backward Masking Majority Function Task (MFT-M) requires intensive attention control, and represents a diverse situation where attentional resources need to be allocated dynamically and flexibly to reduce uncertainty. Aiming to train attention control using MFT-M and examine the training transfer effects in various executive functions, we recruited healthy young adults (n = 84) and then equally randomized them into two groups trained with either MFT-M or a sham program for seven consecutive days. Cognitive evaluations were conducted before and after the training, and the electroencephalograph (EEG) signals were recorded for the revised Attention Network Test (ANT-R), N-back, and Task-switching (TS) tasks. Compared to the control group, the training group performed better on the congruent condition of Flanker and the double-congruency condition of Flanker and Location in the ANT-R task, and on the learning trials in the verbal memory test. The training group also showed a larger P2 amplitude decrease and P3 amplitude increase in the 2-back task and a larger P3 amplitude increase in the TS task's repeat condition than the control group, indicating improved neural efficiency in two tasks' attentional processes. Introversion moderated the transfer effects of training, as indicated by the significant group*introversion interactions on the post-training 1-back efficiency and TS switching cost. Our results suggested that attention control training with the MFT-M showed a broad transfer scope, and the transfer effect was influenced by the form of training task. Introversion facilitated the transfer to working memory and hindered the transfer to flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haobo Zhang
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China.
| | - Shaoxia Fan
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Jing Yang
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Jing Yi
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Lizhen Guan
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Hao He
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Xingxing Zhang
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Yuejia Luo
- Department of Applied Psychology, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266113, China
| | - Qing Guan
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China; Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science, Shenzhen, 518060, China
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2
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Chang EC. Information-Theoretic Quantification of Dedifferentiation in the Aging of Motor and Executive Functions. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:634089. [PMID: 34489670 PMCID: PMC8418143 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.634089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A central account of cognitive aging is the dedifferentiation among functions due to reduced processing resources. Previous reports contrasting trends of aging across cognitive domains mostly relied on transformed scores of heterogeneous measures. By quantifying the computational load with information entropy in tasks probing motor and executive functions, this study uncovered interaction among age, task, and load as well as associations among the parametric estimates of these factors at the individual level. Specifically, the linear functions between computational load and performance time differed significantly between motor and executive tasks in the young group but not in the elderly group and showed stronger associations for parameters within and between tasks in the elderly group than in the young group. These findings are in line with the dedifferentiation hypothesis of cognitive aging and provide a more principled approach in contrasting trends of cognitive aging across different domains from the information-theoretic perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Chihhung Chang
- Action and Cognition Laboratory, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
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3
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Peng S, Xuan B, Li P. Fearful faces modulate cognitive control under varying levels of uncertainty: An event-related potential study. Brain Cogn 2020; 141:105550. [PMID: 32087426 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2019] [Revised: 01/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive control can reduce uncertainty, but few studies have investigated temporal dynamics of the flexible allocation of resources under varying levels of uncertainty. We used a revised majority function task with emotional faces and event-related potentials to investigate this process. The task incorporated different ratios of face orientation to quantify uncertainty. Participants performed slower in high uncertainty than in other levels. Under low uncertainty, participants showed greater amplitudes of frontal N200 and late frontal wave to neutral faces than fearful faces. Parietal P300 amplitudes decreased from low uncertainty to high uncertainty, and fearful faces elicited greater P300 amplitudes than neutral faces under all levels of uncertainty. These results suggest that emotion and uncertainty interacted in the frontal cortex during both early and late stages, while no interaction existed in the parietal cortex during the late stage. The interference of fearful faces is lessened by increasing cognitive control under high uncertainty in the frontal cortex, suggesting that humans possess the ability to flexibly allocate mental resources in the temporal domain. Our findings provide evidence to support the fronto-parietal network hypothesis of cognitive control in a novel perspective of uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suhao Peng
- School of Educational Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - Bin Xuan
- School of Educational Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China.
| | - Peng Li
- School of Educational Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China
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Wu T, Wang X, Wu Q, Spagna A, Yang J, Yuan C, Wu Y, Gao Z, Hof PR, Fan J. Anterior insular cortex is a bottleneck of cognitive control. Neuroimage 2019; 195:490-504. [PMID: 30798012 PMCID: PMC6550348 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive control, with a limited capacity, is a core process in human cognition for the coordination of thoughts and actions. Although the regions involved in cognitive control have been identified as the cognitive control network (CCN), it is still unclear whether a specific region of the CCN serves as a bottleneck limiting the capacity of cognitive control (CCC). Here, we used a perceptual decision-making task with conditions of high cognitive load to challenge the CCN and to assess the CCC in a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. We found that the activation of the right anterior insular cortex (AIC) of the CCN increased monotonically as a function of cognitive load, reached its plateau early, and showed a significant correlation to the CCC. In a subsequent study of patients with unilateral lesions of the AIC, we found that lesions of the AIC were associated with a significant impairment of the CCC. Simulated lesions of the AIC resulted in a reduction of the global efficiency of the CCN in a network analysis. These findings suggest that the AIC, as a critical hub in the CCN, is a bottleneck of cognitive control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Wu
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Xingchao Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Qiong Wu
- School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Alfredo Spagna
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University in the City of New York, USA; Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, ICM, INSERM U-1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Jiaqi Yang
- Department of Computer Science, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Changhe Yuan
- Department of Computer Science, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Yanhong Wu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.
| | - Zhixian Gao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China.
| | - Patrick R Hof
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jin Fan
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY, USA; Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
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Chen Y, Spagna A, Wu T, Kim TH, Wu Q, Chen C, Wu Y, Fan J. Testing a Cognitive Control Model of Human Intelligence. Sci Rep 2019; 9:2898. [PMID: 30814663 PMCID: PMC6393508 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39685-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The definition of human intelligence and its underlying psychological constructs have long been debated. Although previous studies have investigated the fundamental cognitive functions determining intellectual abilities, such as the broadly defined executive functions including working memory, the core process has yet to be identified. A potential candidate for such a role might be cognitive control, a psychological construct for the coordination of thoughts and actions under conditions of uncertainty. In this study, we tested a cognitive control model of intellectual ability by examining the association between cognitive control, measured by a perceptual decision-making task and by the attention network test, and general intelligence including components of fluid intelligence (Gf, concerning the ability to solve problems by abstraction) and crystalized intelligence (Gc, related to learning from prior knowledge and experience) measured by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. We also examined the potential role of cognitive control as a core process involved in another determinant of intellectual abilities, the working memory, measured by the N-back tasks and the working memory complex span tasks. The relationship among intelligence, cognitive control, and working memory was examined using structural equation modeling. Results showed that cognitive control shared a large amount of variance with working memory and both measures were strongly associated with Gf and Gc, with a stronger association with Gf than Gc. These findings suggest that cognitive control, serving as a core construct of executive functions, contributes substantially to general intellectual ability, especially fluid intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY, USA
- Department of Psychology, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alfredo Spagna
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University in the City of New York, New York, NY, USA
- Physiological Investigations of Clinically Normal and Impaired Cognition Laboratory, Institute du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epiniere, Paris, France
| | - Tingting Wu
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Tae Hyeong Kim
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Qiong Wu
- School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Caiqi Chen
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yanhong Wu
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Machine Perception (Ministry of Education), Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Jin Fan
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY, USA.
- Department of Psychology, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY, USA.
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Wu T, Dufford AJ, Mackie MA, Egan LJ, Fan J. The Capacity of Cognitive Control Estimated from a Perceptual Decision Making Task. Sci Rep 2016; 6:34025. [PMID: 27659950 PMCID: PMC5034293 DOI: 10.1038/srep34025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive control refers to the processes that permit selection and prioritization of information processing in different cognitive domains to reach the capacity-limited conscious mind. Although previous studies have suggested that the capacity of cognitive control itself is limited, a direct quantification of this capacity has not been attempted. In this behavioral study, we manipulated the information rate of cognitive control by parametrically varying both the uncertainty of stimul measured as information entropy and the exposure time of the stimuli. We used the relationship between the participants' response accuracy and the information rate of cognitive control (in bits per second, bps) in the model fitting to estimate the capacity of cognitive control. We found that the capacity of cognitive control was approximately 3 to 4 bps, demonstrating that cognitive control as a higher-level function has a remarkably low capacity. This quantification of the capacity of cognitive control may have significant theoretical and clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Wu
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY 11367, USA
| | - Alexander J. Dufford
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY 11367, USA
- Departments of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Melissa-Ann Mackie
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY 11367, USA
- Department of Psychology, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Laura J. Egan
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY 11367, USA
| | - Jin Fan
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY 11367, USA
- Departments of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
- Department of Psychology, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
- Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
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Wu Q, Chang CF, Xi S, Huang IW, Liu Z, Juan CH, Wu Y, Fan J. A critical role of temporoparietal junction in the integration of top-down and bottom-up attentional control. Hum Brain Mapp 2015; 36:4317-33. [PMID: 26308973 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.22919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Information processing can be biased toward behaviorally relevant and salient stimuli by top-down (goal-directed) and bottom-up (stimulus-driven) attentional control processes respectively. However, the neural basis underlying the integration of these processes is not well understood. We employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) in humans to examine the brain mechanisms underlying the interaction between these two processes. We manipulated the cognitive load involved in top-down processing and stimulus surprise involved in bottom-up processing in a factorial design by combining a majority function task and an oddball paradigm. We found that high cognitive load and high surprise level were associated with prolonged reaction time compared to low cognitive load and low surprise level, with a synergistic interaction effect, which was accompanied by a greater deactivation of bilateral temporoparietal junction (TPJ). In addition, the TPJ displayed negative functional connectivity with right middle occipital gyrus, which is involved in bottom-up processing (modulated by the interaction effect), and the right frontal eye field (FEF), which is involved in top-down control. The enhanced negative functional connectivity between the TPJ and right FEF was accompanied by a larger behavioral interaction effect across subjects. Application of cathodal tDCS over the right TPJ eliminated the interaction effect. These results suggest that the TPJ plays a critical role in processing bottom-up information for top-down control of attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Wu
- Department of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Chi-Fu Chang
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Sisi Xi
- Department of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - I-Wen Huang
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Zuxiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Chi-Hung Juan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Yanhong Wu
- Department of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Machine Perception (Ministry of Education), Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Jin Fan
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, New York
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York
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8
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Mackie MA, Fan J. Reduced Efficiency and Capacity of Cognitive Control in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism Res 2015; 9:403-14. [PMID: 26171787 DOI: 10.1002/aur.1517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Revised: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive control constrains mental operations to prioritize information that reaches conscious awareness and is essential to flexible, adaptive behavior under conditions of uncertainty. Cognitive control can be compromised by neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which is characterized by the presence of social and communicative deficits, and restricted interests/repetitive behaviors. Although prior investigations have attempted to elucidate the nature of cognitive control in ASD, whether there is an underlying information processing deficit associated with cognitive control remains unclear. This study challenged cognitive control in 15 high-functioning adults with ASD and 15 typically developing (TD) controls using three novel tasks designed to systematically manipulate uncertainty. We aimed to investigate the efficiency of cognitive control in sequential information processing, cognitive control of nonsequential information processing across a range of cognitive loads and cognitive control capacity under time constraint. Results demonstrated that the ASD group performed less efficiently on sequential and nonsequential information processing, and had reduced cognitive control capacity under time constraint relative to the TD group. These findings suggest that inefficient cognitive control of information processing may be a fundamental deficit in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa-Ann Mackie
- Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY, 10016.,Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY, 11367
| | - Jin Fan
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York, Queens, NY, 11367.,Departments of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029.,Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029.,Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
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Fan J. An information theory account of cognitive control. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:680. [PMID: 25228875 PMCID: PMC4151034 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Our ability to efficiently process information and generate appropriate responses depends on the processes collectively called cognitive control. Despite a considerable focus in the literature on the cognitive control of information processing, neural mechanisms underlying control are still unclear, and have not been characterized by considering the quantity of information to be processed. A novel and comprehensive account of cognitive control is proposed using concepts from information theory, which is concerned with communication system analysis and the quantification of information. This account treats the brain as an information-processing entity where cognitive control and its underlying brain networks play a pivotal role in dealing with conditions of uncertainty. This hypothesis and theory article justifies the validity and properties of such an account and relates experimental findings to the frontoparietal network under the framework of information theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Fan
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, The City University of New York Flushing, NY, USA ; Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai New York, NY, USA
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Fan J, Van Dam NT, Gu X, Liu X, Wang H, Tang CY, Hof PR. Quantitative characterization of functional anatomical contributions to cognitive control under uncertainty. J Cogn Neurosci 2014; 26:1490-506. [PMID: 24392900 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Although much evidence indicates that RT increases as a function of computational load in many cognitive tasks, quantification of changes in neural activity related to increasing demand of cognitive control has rarely been attempted. In this fMRI study, we used a majority function task to quantify the effect of computational load on brain activation, reflecting the mental processes instantiated by cognitive control under conditions of uncertainty. We found that the activation of the frontoparieto-cingulate system as well as the deactivation of the anticorrelated default mode network varied parametrically as a function of information uncertainty, estimated as entropy with an information theoretic model. The current findings suggest that activity changes in the dynamic networks of the brain (especially the frontoparieto-cingulate system) track with information uncertainty, rather than only conflict or other commonly proposed targets of cognitive control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Fan
- The City University of New York
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Cognitive control and attentional functions. Brain Cogn 2013; 82:301-12. [PMID: 23792472 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2013.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Revised: 03/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive control is essential to flexible, goal-directed behavior under uncertainty, yet its underlying mechanisms are not clearly understood. Because attentional functions are known to allocate mental resources and prioritize the information to be processed, we propose that the attentional functions of alerting, orienting, and executive control and the interactions among them contribute to cognitive control in the service of uncertainty reduction. To test this hypothesis, we examined the relationship between cognitive control and attentional functions. We used the Majority Function Task (MFT) to manipulate uncertainty in order to evoke cognitive control along with the Revised Attention Network Test (ANT-R) to measure the efficiency and the interactions of attentional functions. A backwards, stepwise regression model revealed that performance on the MFT could be significantly predicted by attentional functions and their interactions as measured by the ANT-R. These results provide preliminary support for our theory that the attentional functions are involved in the implementation of cognitive control as required to reduce uncertainty, though further investigation is needed.
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Fu WT, Lee H, Boot WR, Kramer AF. Bridging across cognitive training and brain plasticity: a neurally inspired computational model of interactive skill learning. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2012; 4:225-236. [DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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