Training-induced improvement of response selection and error detection in aging assessed by task switching: effects of cognitive, physical, and relaxation training

High autistic traits linked with reduced performance on affective task switching: An ERP study

Few studies have investigated affective flexibility in individuals with high autistic traits. In the present study, we employed affective task-switching paradigm combined with event related potential (ERP) technology to explore affective flexibility in individuals with high autistic traits. Participants were instructed to switch between identifying the gender (gender task) and emotion (emotion task) of presented faces. Two groups of participants were recruited based on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) scores: a High Autistic Group (HAG) and a Low Autistic Group (LAG). The results confirmed that the HAG exhibited greater behavioral emotion switch costs and increased N2 and decreased P3 components when switching to the emotion task. Additionally, we identified an affective asymmetric switch cost in the HAG, where the switch cost for the emotion task was larger than for the gender task at both behavioral and electrophysiological levels. In contrast, a symmetrical switch cost was observed in the LAG. These findings indicate that the HAG experiences difficulties with affective flexibility, particularly in tasks involving emotional processing. The patterns of affective asymmetric switch costs observed in both groups differed from previous results in autistic children and the general population, suggesting that the relative dominance of gender and emotion tasks may vary between the two groups. We propose that the dominance of emotion tasks declines as autistic traits increase.

A meta-analysis on the relationship between subjective cognitive failures as measured by the cognitive failures questionnaire (CFQ) and objective performance on executive function tasks

The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) has been widely used as a measure of subjective cognitive function in everyday life for decades. However, the evidence on how it relates to objective performance on executive function tasks is mixed. One possible reason for these mixed results is that the CFQ has selective relationships with some aspects of executive function and not others. Here, therefore, we classified tasks according to an influential framework of executive functions-switching, updating, inhibition, and we also considered the Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) as a category because it was custom designed to gauge cognitive failures. We synthesized a large body of available evidence and performed four Bayesian meta-analyses on the relationship between CFQ scores and objective performance on executive function tasks in these four categories. Results suggested that CFQ scores were associated with objective performance on SART (18 effect sizes, μ = -.19, BF10 = 18.03, i.e., 18.03 times more evidence of a relationship versus no relationship), updating working memory (49 effect sizes, μ = -.06, BF10 = 17.80), and inhibition tasks (41 effect sizes, μ = -.07, BF10 = 15.40), whereas there was not definitive evidence regarding switching (34 effect sizes, μ = -.06, BF10 = .50, i.e., two times greater evidence for no relationship). This suggests that subjective cognitive function can predict objective performance on at least some executive function tasks. We discuss methodological and theoretical factors that constrain the maximum observable correlation and consider the relative insights that subjective measures versus task performance provide.

Transforming text to music using artificial intelligence improves the frontal lobe function of normal older adults

INTRODUCTION

Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) have been substantial. We investigated the effectiveness of an online meeting in which normal older adults (otokai) used a music-generative AI that transforms text to music (Music Trinity Generative Algorithm-Human Refined [MusicTGA-HR]).

METHODS

One hundred eighteen community-dwelling, cognitively normal older adults were recruited through the internet (64 men, 54 women; mean age: 69.4 ± 4.4 years). Using MusicTGA-HR, the participants chose music that they thought was the most suitable to a given theme. We established 11 classes of 7-10 members and one instructor each. Each class held an online meeting once a week, and each participant presented the music they chose. The other participants and the instructor then commented on the music. Neuropsychological assessments were performed before and after the intervention for 6 months, and the results before and after the intervention were statistically analyzed.

RESULTS

The category and letter word fluencies (WFs) were significantly improved (category WF: p = .003; letter WF: p = .036), and the time of the Trail-Making Test-B was also significantly shortened (p = .039). The Brain Assessment, an online cognitive test we developed, showed significant improvement in the memory of numbers (p < .001).

CONCLUSION

The online meeting of the otokai, which used music-generative AI, improved the frontal lobe function and memory of independent normal older adults.

Effect of homeostatic pressure and circadian rhythm on the task-switching: Evidence from drift diffusion model and ERP

The effect of diurnal fluctuations on cognitive functions is widely studied, yet rare research has attempted to separate the role of two crucial processes underlying diurnal fluctuations: homeostatic pressure and circadian rhythm. The present study aimed to dissociate their effects by conducting a task-switching task in the morning, napping afternoon, and no-napping afternoon, respectively. Additionally, DDM and ERP were utilized to explore how these two processes differentially affect cognitive processes involved in task-switching. By a within-participant design, 35 healthy adults (20.03 ± 2.01 year-old, 14 males) with an intermediate-type chronotype were recruited in the current study. The results demonstrated that accumulated homeostatic pressure caused reduced accuracy, drift rate, and decision threshold. In the no-napping afternoon, P1 and P2 amplitudes were also decreased due to homeostatic pressure, whereas an afternoon nap could partially restore performance and neural activity. Conversely, the upward circadian rhythm in the afternoon exerted a compensatory effect, resulting in increases in N2 and P3 amplitudes. The findings highlight the disassociated impacts of homeostatic pressure and circadian rhythm on the cognitive processes involved in task-switching and further underscore the importance of considering diurnal variation in both scientific research and accident prevention.

Effects of cognitive and stress management training in middle-aged and older industrial workers in different socioeconomic settings: a randomized controlled study

Introduction

The demographic change requires longer working lifetime. However, fear of job loss may lead to chronic stress whereas aging and unchallenging work may accelerate cognitive decline and early retirement. Long-time repetitive work led to impairments of cognitive functions in middle-aged and older employees, as demonstrated in a previous study conducted in a large car manufacturer. In the present study, a training concept was implemented to enhance the cognitive and emotional competence of these employees.

Methods

A first group of employees received a trainer-guided cognitive training only, whereas a wait list control group received a cognitive training and stress management training. This design was applied in two independent samples separated by one year either during or after a socioeconomically tense situation of the factory.

Results

In sample 1, with a tense occupational situation, the cognitive training effects occurred with a delay of three months. In contrast, in sample 2, with less critical socioeconomic situation, the training effects occurred immediately and persisted three months later. Stress management training showed reduction of subjectively and objectively measured stress level.

Discussion

The results indicate that effects of cognitive interventions are diminished under chronic stress which can be reduced after a short stress management training. This leads also to enhanced attention and memory in daily life. In contrast, in Sample 2 with less chronic stress, effects of cognitive training were stronger and persisted at least three months later, whereas stress management training had less impact. This suggests that cognitive learning in occupational settings is only efficient at lower stress levels.

Effect of aerobic exercise training on EEG: event-related potential and neuropsychological functions in depressed elderly with mild cognitive impairment

Increased depressive severity has been linked to neurocognitive impairment. Aerobic exercise (AE) is an efficient technique for improving cognitive function. However, studies indicating the importance of AE to neurophysiological and neuropsychological functions in the depressed elderly using event-related potentials (ERPs) are scarce.

Objectives

This study aimed to identify the potential benefits of AE on neurophysiological and neuropsychological functions.

Methods

A total of 30 depressed older adults (AE group: n=15; control group (CG): n=14) were recruited based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The AE group was subjected to an 8-week-period AE program (3 times/week for 30 min per session) at moderate intensity, determined using heart rate maximum (HRmax). The training intensity was set at 50% HRmax and increased by 5% in subsequent weeks. Pre- and post-training measures for neurophysiological function were tested using ERP-P300 (amplitude-μV and latency-ms) and also for neuropsychological functions using the trail making test (TMT), mini mental status examination (MMSE), and everyday cognition questionnaire (ECog).

Results

In the experimental group, statistically significant improvements were observed when analyzed for all 3 (group-by-time interaction effect, main effect of time, and main effect of group), in both neurophysiological functions (*p<0.001) and neuropsychological functions (*p<0.001), except for ECog scores, where the results were insignificant for the main effect of a group. Correlation analysis demonstrated no association between neurophysiological and neuropsychological functions (*p>0.05).

Conclusion

Findings showed that 8 weeks of AE training may be a promising approach to improve cognitive functions in depressed older adults. However, considering relatively small number of patients, the question arises for effectiveness in other populations.

Effect of a pulmonary rehabilitation program combined with cognitive training on exercise tolerance and cognitive functions among Tunisian male patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Cognitive impairment has been well described in patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in addition to cardiorespiratory disability. To reduce this impairment, researchers have recommended the use of single or combined exercise training. However, the combined effect of cognitive training (CT) and pulmonary rehabilitation (PR) program on selective cognitive abilities in patients with COPD has not been fully evaluated. Therefore, we aimed to assess the impact of PR combined with CT on 6 minutes walking test (6MWT) and cognitive parameters in Tunisian males' patients with COPD.

METHODS

Thirty-nine patients with COPD were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n = 21, age = 65.3 ± 2.79) and a control group (n = 18, age = 65.3 ± 3.2). The intervention group underwent PR combined with CT, and the control group underwent only PR, three times per week for 3 months. The primary outcomes were 6MWT (6 minutes walking test -6MWT-parameters) and cognitive performance, as evaluated by Montreal cognitive assessments (MOCA) and P300 test. Secondary outcomes were patient's characteristics and spirometric data. These tests were measured at baseline and after 3 months of training programs.

RESULTS

Results showed a significant improvement of the 6MWT distance after the rehabilitation period in both groups (p < .001). Moreover, both groups showed significant improvement (p < .001) in cognitive performance including MOCA score and P300 test latency in three midline electrodes. However, the improvement in cognitive performance was significantly greater in the PR+CT group than the PR group.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, although PR alone improves 6MWT parameters and cognitive function, the addition of CT to PR is more effective in improving cognitive abilities in patients with COPD. This combined approach may provide clinicians with a complementary therapeutic option for improving cognitive abilities in patients with COPD.

Effects of 12 weeks of aerobic exercise combined with resistance training on neurocognitive performance in obese women

Background/Objectives

To the best of our knowledge, there have been no previous studies conducted on the long-term effects of an exercise intervention on deficits in inhibitory control in obese individuals. The aim of this study was thus to examine the effect of 12 weeks of a combination of aerobic and resistance exercise on behavioral and cognitive electrophysiological performance involving cognitive interference inhibition in obese individuals.

Methods

Thirty-two qualified healthy obese women were randomly divided into either an exercise group (EG, age: 34.76 ± 5.52 years old; BMI: 29.35 ± 3.52 kg/m2) or a control group (CG, age: 33.84 ± 7.05 years old; BMI: 29.61 ± 4.31 kg/m2). All participants performed the Stroop task, with electrophysiological signals being collected simultaneously before and after a 12-week intervention. The estimated V̇O2max, muscular strength, and body fat percentage (measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) were also assessed within one week before and after the intervention. Participants in the EG group engaged in 30 min of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise combined with resistance exercise, 5 sessions per week for 12 weeks, while the participants in the CG group maintained their regular lifestyle without engaging in any type of exercise.

Results

The results revealed that although a 12-week exercise intervention did not enhance the behavioral indices [e.g., accuracy rates (ARs) and reaction times (RTs)] in the EG group, significantly shorter N2 and P3 latencies and greater P2 and P3 amplitudes were observed. Furthermore, the fat percentage distribution (e.g. total body fat %, trunk fat %, and leg fat %) and level of physical fitness (e.g. estimated V̇O2max and muscular strength) in the EG group were significantly improved. The changes prior to and after the intervention in the P3 amplitude and trunk fat percentage were significantly negatively correlated in the EG group (r = -0.521, p = 0.039).

Conclusions

These findings suggested that 12 weeks of aerobic exercise combined with resistance exercise in obese women affects cognitive function broadly, but not specifically in terms of inhibitory control. The percentage of decreased trunk fat may play a potential facilitating role in inhibition processing in obesity.

The influence of pride emotion on executive function: Evidence from ERP

BACKGROUND

The current study examined the influence of positive "basic" emotions on executive function; there is limited evidence about the influence of positive "self-conscious"emotions, such as pride, on executive functions processes.

METHODS

Pride is a status-related self-conscious emotion and the present research explored the influence of pride on the subcomponents of executive function, using three experiments that adopted the digit size-parity switching, N-back, and dual choice oddball paradigms.

RESULTS

The behavioral results suggested that cognitive load and behavior inhibition effects in the pride emotion were significantly higher than the neutral emotion. The ERP results showed that the pride emotion elicited smaller P3 difference wave for the switching task and dual choice oddball task. In the N-back task, the pride emotion elicited larger N1 amplitude and smaller P2 difference wave compared to the neutral emotion. A comparison among results from the three experiments indicated that pride emotion restrains all subcomponents of executive function, though with different manifestations of the impact.

CONCLUSION

Experiencing positive emotions is typically viewed as desirable and adaptive in educational settings; however, pride as a unique positive emotion may damage people's cognitive performance, indicating that we need to be cautious when performing cognitive operations in a pride mood.

A Randomized Controlled Trial Study of a Multimodal Intervention vs. Cognitive Training to Foster Cognitive and Affective Health in Older Adults

Research over the past few decades has shown the positive influence that cognitive, social, and physical activities have on older adults' cognitive and affective health. Especially interventions in health-related behaviors, such as cognitive activation, physical activity, social activity, nutrition, mindfulness, and creativity, have shown to be particularly beneficial. Whereas most intervention studies apply unimodal interventions, such as cognitive training (CT), this study investigates the potential to foster cognitive and affective health factors of older adults by means of an autonomy-supportive multimodal intervention (MMI). The intervention integrates everyday life recommendations for six evidence-based areas combined with psychoeducational information. This randomized controlled trial study compares the effects of a MMI and CT on those of a waiting control group (WCG) on cognitive and affective factors, everyday life memory performance, and activity in everyday life. Three groups, including a total of 119 adults aged 65-86 years, attended a 5- or 10-week intervention. Specifically, one group completed a 10-week MMI, the second group completed 5-week of computer-based CT followed by a 5-week MMI, whereas the third group paused before completing the MMI for the last 5 weeks. All participants completed online surveys and cognitive tests at three test points. The findings showed an increase in the number and variability of activities in the everyday lives of all participants. Post hoc analysis on cognitive performance of MMI to CT indicate similar (classic memory and attention) or better (working memory) effects. Furthermore, results on far transfer variables showed interesting trends in favor of the MMI, such as increased well-being and attitude toward the aging brain. Also, the MMI group showed the biggest perceived improvements out of all groups for all self-reported personal variables (memory in everyday life and stress). The results implicate a positive trend toward MMI on cognitive and affective factors of older adults. These tendencies show the potential of a multimodal approach compared to training a specific cognitive function. Moreover, the findings suggest that information about MMI motivates participants to increase activity variability and frequency in everyday life. Finally, the results could also have implications for the primary prevention of neurocognitive deficits and degenerative diseases.

Does Cognitive Training Improve Mobility, Enhance Cognition, and Promote Neural Activation?

A close inter-relationship between mobility and cognition is reported in older adults, with improvements in gait performance noticeable after cognitive remediation in frail individuals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of computerized cognitive training (CCT) on mobility in healthy, independently living older adults, and to determine whether CCT is associated with changes in neural activation for mobility-related brain processes. Using a randomized single-blind control design, sixty-three non-demented adults age 60 y and older (mean age = 67 y; 76% female, mean Montreal Cognitive Assessment [MoCA] score = 27) were recruited from a local Senior Activity Center. Participants were randomly assigned to either a 2-month CCT program (8 weeks, 3x/week, 40 min/session) or a wait-list control group. Primary outcome was self-selected gait speed during single- and dual-task walking. Secondary outcome was executive function on Trail Making Test (TMT), Part B. Neural activity was assessed via electroencephalography/event-related potentials (EEG/ERPs) targeting lower-limb performance. Results from a linear mixed effect model, adjusted for baseline MoCA score, age, gender, and study completion revealed that compared to controls, CCT improved gait speed during the dual-task (p = 0.008) but not during the single-task walking condition (p = 0.057). CCT also improved executive function (p = 0.024). Further, shorter foot reaction time responses (p = 0.019) were found with enhanced neural activation over sensorimotor areas, with shorter ERP latencies during the P2 component (p = 0.008) and enhanced motor responses (p = 0.009) also evident in the CCT group after the intervention. Overall, the electrophysiological findings suggest possible neural adaptations that could explain improvements in mobility and executive functions associated with CCT in healthy older adults.

The Association of Obesity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Relation to Cognitive Flexibility: An Event-Related Potential Study

This study investigates an association between obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness concerning their potential effects on cognitive flexibility in young adults from behavioral and neuroelectrical perspectives. Eligible young adults (N = 140, 18-25 years) were assigned into one of four groups, according to their status of obesity (i.e., body mass index) and cardiorespiratory fitness levels (i.e., estimated maximal oxygen uptake), namely, normal weight with high cardiorespiratory fitness (NH), obese with high cardiorespiratory fitness (OH), normal weight with low cardiorespiratory fitness (NL), and obese with low cardiorespiratory fitness (OL). The task-switching test was utilized, and its induced endogenous (P3) and exogenous (N1) event-related potential components were recorded. Concerning behavioral indices, the NH demonstrated superior behavioral performance across global switching and local switching of the task-switching test compared to individuals with lower cardiorespiratory fitness and obesity (i.e., NL, OH, and OL). Additionally, the OH demonstrated better performance than the OL during the heterogeneous condition. For neuroelectrical indices, the NH had larger mean P3 amplitudes during global and local switching than the other three groups. A larger N1 amplitude was also observed in the NH during local switching than in the OH group. The findings suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness has beneficial effects on cognitive flexibility, attentional resource allocation, and sensory evaluation in young adults. Furthermore, our research provided novel evidence showing that cardiorespiratory fitness might potentially alleviate the adverse effects of obesity on cognitive flexibility in young adults.

Cognitive skill training improves memory, function, and use of cognitive strategies in cancer survivors

BACKGROUND

Cancer survivors commonly report symptoms of impaired cognition. This project examined effectiveness of a behavioral skills training intervention to improve cognition and reduce cognitive dysfunction symptoms in cancer survivors.

METHODS

Participants were randomly assigned to group-based workshops focused on learning new cognitive skills (skills treatment-TX) or an active control of education workshops (education control-EC) or a passive control of wait list (WL). Participants were evaluated pre- and post intervention with subjective mood and symptom questionnaires and objective neurocognitive tests.

RESULTS

One hundred twenty-eight participants (mean age 59 years), average 4.6 years (+ / - 5.5 years) post cancer treatment with various cancer types (breast, bladder, prostate, colon, uterine), were enrolled. Analysis of all participants who attended workshop(s) revealed improvement in the TX workshop completers on all objective cognitive measures (attention, concentration, declarative, and working memory) save one test of selective attention, and improvement on a single measure (verbal memory) and decline (selective attention) in the EC group. TX workshop completers also improved on all symptom and mood measures, in contrast to EC group which improved on a single subscale of a symptom measure, but increased on an anxiety measure. TX group alone improved on a quantified measure of each participants' unique, "top three," self-described cognitive symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Improvement from behavioral skills training was evident from objective cognitive tests, subjective symptom measures, and quantified, individual patient-specific symptoms. Behavioral skill training is an effective treatment for cognitive dysfunction in cancer survivors, and should be considered as a treatment option by health care providers.

Neural Correlates of Aging-Related Differences in Pro-active Control in a Dual Task

Background: Multi-tasking is usually impaired in older people. In multi-tasking, a fixed order of sub-tasks can improve performance by promoting a time-structured preparation of sub-tasks. How proactive control prioritizes the pre-activation or inhibition of complex tasks in older people has received no sufficient clarification so far. Objective: To explore the effects of aging on neural proactive control mechanisms in a dual task. Methodology: To address this question, the psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm was used. Two 2-alternative-forced-choice reaction tasks with a predefined order (T1 and T2) signaled by a cue had to be executed simultaneously or consecutively by young (mean age 25.1 years, n = 36) and old subjects (mean age 70.4 years, n = 118). Performance indices of dual-task preparation were used to assess the focused preparation of T1 and T2. To compare preparatory mechanisms at the neurophysiologic level, multi-channel electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded and negative slow cortical potentials (SCPs) were analyzed as objective markers of the amount and localization of cortical pre-activation before sub-task presentation. Results: Dual-task performance was significantly slower in old adults. T1 performance was facilitated in both age groups, but T2 processing in old adults was not optimized by the temporal structure as efficiently as in young adults. Also, only young adults manifested a stable pattern of focused of negative slow-wave activity increase at medial frontal and right-hemisphere posterior regions, which was associated with a coordinated preparatory T1 pre-activation and T2 deferment, while old adults manifested a broad topographic distribution of negative SCPs associated with a pre-activation of sensory and motor processes. Conclusions: These observations demonstrate that the proactive preparation for dual tasking is altered with aging. It is suggested that in young adults, attention-based pre-activation of working memory and inhibitory networks in the right hemisphere synchronizes the simultaneous preparation of the two sub-tasks, whereas in old adults, sensory and motor networks appear to be non-specifically pre-activated for subsequent deferred mode of processing.

Short-Term Audiovisual Spatial Training Enhances Electrophysiological Correlates of Auditory Selective Spatial Attention

Audiovisual cross-modal training has been proposed as a tool to improve human spatial hearing. Here, we investigated training-induced modulations of event-related potential (ERP) components that have been associated with processes of auditory selective spatial attention when a speaker of interest has to be localized in a multiple speaker ("cocktail-party") scenario. Forty-five healthy participants were tested, including younger (19-29 years; n = 21) and older (66-76 years; n = 24) age groups. Three conditions of short-term training (duration 15 min) were compared, requiring localization of non-speech targets under "cocktail-party" conditions with either (1) synchronous presentation of co-localized auditory-target and visual stimuli (audiovisual-congruency training) or (2) immediate visual feedback on correct or incorrect localization responses (visual-feedback training), or (3) presentation of spatially incongruent auditory-target and visual stimuli presented at random positions with synchronous onset (control condition). Prior to and after training, participants were tested in an auditory spatial attention task (15 min), requiring localization of a predefined spoken word out of three distractor words, which were presented with synchronous stimulus onset from different positions. Peaks of ERP components were analyzed with a specific focus on the N2, which is known to be a correlate of auditory selective spatial attention. N2 amplitudes were significantly larger after audiovisual-congruency training compared with the remaining training conditions for younger, but not older, participants. Also, at the time of the N2, distributed source analysis revealed an enhancement of neural activity induced by audiovisual-congruency training in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 9) for the younger group. These findings suggest that cross-modal processes induced by audiovisual-congruency training under "cocktail-party" conditions at a short time scale resulted in an enhancement of correlates of auditory selective spatial attention.

Impaired set-shifting in drug-naïve patients with borderline personality disorder: an event-related potentials study

BACKGROUND

Neurocognitive impairments might play a key role in the development of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), however, the pathophysiological mechanism underlying cognitive impairment of BPD is largely unknown. This study was aimed to examine the electrophysiological mechanism of deficits in set-shifting processing in patients with BPD.

METHODS

Twenty-seven drug-naïve patients with BPD and twenty-four healthy controls were recruited. Demographic variables and clinical characteristics of all subjects were collected. Behavioral data and event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded when subjects were performing the task-switching paradigm, which was applied to investigate the set-shifting function. The P2, N2 and P3 components in the task-switching paradigm would be analyzed.

RESULTS

Patients with BPD had significantly higher level of impulsivity, depression and anxiety than healthy controls. When performing the switching task, the BPD group had lower P2 amplitude and higher N2 amplitude than the control group. In the BPD group, the P2 latency at Fz electrode in repeat task was correlated positively with the level of depression, and P2 latency at Pz electrode in repeat task and switch task both had significantly negative relationships with the the level of anxiety.

LIMITATIONS

This cross-sectional designed study did not clarify the causal relationship of the electrophysiological characteristics and the development of BPD.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with BPD might have abnormal brain activities when overcoming the inhibition of current task and inhibiting the effects of prior task, and their top-down control function might be impaired. These findings provide some useful clues for the underlying pathophysiological mechanism of BPD.

Effects of multi-domain cognitive training on working memory retrieval in older adults: behavioral and ERP evidence from a Chinese community study

Working memory (WM) is a fundamental cognitive function that typically declines with age. Previous studies have shown that targeted WM training has the potential to improve WM performance in older adults. In the present study, we investigated whether a multi-domain cognitive training program that was not designed to specifically target WM could improve the behavioral performance and affect the neural activity during WM retrieval in healthy older adults. We assigned healthy older participants (70-78 years old) from a local community into a training group who completed a 3-month multi-domain cognitive training and a control group who only attended health education lectures during the same period. Behavioral and electroencephalography (EEG) data were recorded from participants while performing an untrained delayed match or non-match to category task and a control task at a pre-training baseline session and a post-training follow-up session. Behaviorally, we found that participants in the training group showed a trend toward greater WM performance gains than participants in the control group. Event-related potential (ERP) results suggest that the task-related modulation of P3 during WM retrieval was significantly enhanced at the follow-up session compared with the baseline session, and importantly, this enhancement of P3 modulation was only significant in the training group. Furthermore, no training-related effects were observed for the P2 or N2 component during WM retrieval. These results suggest that the multi-domain cognitive training program that was not designed to specifically target WM is a promising approach to improve WM performance in older adults, and that training-related gains in performance are likely mediated by an enhanced modulation of P3 which might reflect the process of WM updating.

Training and Transfer of Cue Updating in Older Adults Is Limited: Evidence From Behavioral and Neuronal Data

Cognitive control processes, such as updating task-relevant information while switching between multiple tasks, are substantially impaired in older adults. However, it has also been shown that these cognitive control processes can be improved by training interventions, e.g., by training in task switching. Here, we applied an event-related potential (ERP) approach to identify whether a cognitive training improves task-preparatory processes such as updating of relevant task goals. To do so, we applied a pretest-training-posttest design with eight training sessions. Two groups of older adults were either trained in task switching (treatment group) or in performing single tasks (control group) and we compared their performance to a group of untrained younger adults. To foster cue updating in the treatment group, we applied a cue-based switching task in which the two task cues were randomly selected prior to target presentation so that participants had time to prepare for the upcoming task. In contrast, the control group also received task cues but those were redundant as only one task had to be performed. We also examined whether training in cue updating during task switching can be transferred to a similar cognitive control task measuring updating of context information, namely a modified version of the AX-Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT). The results revealed training-specific improvements in task switching, that is, a larger improvement in blocks requiring switching in comparison to single tasks at the behavioral level. In addition, training specific-effects were also found at the neuronal level. Older adults trained in cue updating while switching showed a reduction in mixing costs in the cue-related P3, indicating an improvement in preparatory updating processes. Additionally, P3 topography changed with training from a very broad to a parietally focused scalp distribution similar to the one found in younger adults. However, we did not obtain training-specific improvements in context updating in the AX-CPT neither at the behavioral level nor at the neuronal level. Results are discussed in the context of the ongoing debate on whether transfer of cognitive training improvements is possible.

Multidomain Cognitive Training Transfers to Attentional and Executive Functions in Healthy Older Adults

Healthy aging is associated with deficits in focused and sustained attention and executive functions. However, cognitive training (CT) provides a promising method to counteract these deficits. In the present randomized controlled study, we examined to what extent CT regimes can improve attention, verbal skills, and inhibition capacities. Over a period of 16 weeks, healthy older adults (65 years and older, mean: 70 years) received a trainer-guided multidomain paper-and-pencil and computerized CT. Pre- and post-training, a battery of psychometric tests was applied that measured the critical functions. This study used two control groups: a passive control and an active control group performing a relaxation training. Compared to a passive control group, the CT led to enhanced performance in the attentional endurance test and the interference list of the Stroop test, whereas no benefits in verbal and crystalized tests were found. Similar effects were found on the attentional endurance compared to the active control group. Additionally, word fluency was enhanced after CT, but the improvement in the Stroop test did not reach significance compared to the active control. The contents of CT were dissimilar to the psychometric tests showing far transfer, whereas no transfer to attentional or memory functions in the daily life assessed by the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire was found. This demonstrates specific gains of multidomain CT on cognitive functions not explicitly trained and lack of transfer to daily activities.

Neural changes in early visual processing after 6 months of mindfulness training in older adults

Mindfulness has been shown to improve attentional performance, which is known to decline in aging. Long-latency electroencephalographic (EEG) event-related potential (ERP) changes have been reported immediately after mindfulness training, however the enduring stability of these effects is unknown. Furthermore, the ability of mindfulness to impact earlier stages of information processing is unclear. We examined neural activation using high density EEG in older adults engaged in mindfulness training to examine the long-term stability of training effects. After 6 months of training, mindfulness practitioners displayed enhanced neural activation during sensory encoding and perceptual processing of a visual cue. Enhanced perceptual processing of a visual cue was associated with increased neural activation during post-perceptual processing of a subsequent target. Similar changes were not observed in a control group engaged in computer-based attention training over the same period. Neural changes following mindfulness training were accompanied by behavioural improvements in attentional performance. Our results are suggestive of increased efficiency of the neural pathways subserving bottom-up visual processing together with an enhanced ability to mobilise top-down attentional processes during perceptual and post-perceptual processing following mindfulness training. These results indicate that mindfulness may enhance neural processes known to deteriorate in normal aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases.

Effect of Cognitive Style on Language Control During Joint Language Switching: An ERP Study

The current study aims to investigate how Field independent (FI) and Field-dependent (FD) cognitive styles modulate bilingual language control during a joint language switching task. The cognitive styles were measured by the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT). The FI group with a preference for autonomous information processing was sensitive to role switching earlier at the cue stage, eliciting a more negative-going N2 in the cross-person condition than in the within-person condition. While the FD group, with a holistic processing style, discerned such role switching later, inducing a more positive-going late positive component (LPC) in the cross-person condition. In addition, the FD group exercised more cognitive control to suppress the interference from the L1 lemma, indexed by larger LPC amplitudes for L2 switch trials than L1 switch trials in the within-person condition. These findings suggest that FDI cognitive styles modulate bilingual language control mechanism through different manners of information processing.

Computerised cognitive training for 12 or more weeks for maintaining cognitive function in cognitively healthy people in late life

BACKGROUND

Increasing age is associated with a natural decline in cognitive function and is the greatest risk factor for dementia. Cognitive decline and dementia are significant threats to independence and quality of life in older adults. Therefore, identifying interventions that help to maintain cognitive function in older adults or that reduce the risk of dementia is a research priority. Cognitive training uses repeated practice on standardised exercises targeting one or more cognitive domains and may be intended to improve or maintain optimal cognitive function. This review examines the effects of computerised cognitive training interventions lasting at least 12 weeks on the cognitive function of healthy adults aged 65 or older and has formed part of a wider project about modifying lifestyle to maintain cognitive function. We chose a minimum 12 weeks duration as a trade-off between adequate exposure to a sustainable intervention and feasibility in a trial setting.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of computerised cognitive training interventions lasting at least 12 weeks on cognitive function in cognitively healthy people in late life.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched to 31 March 2018 in ALOIS (www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/alois), and we performed additional searches of MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the WHO Portal/ICTRP (www.apps.who.int/trialsearch), to ensure that the search was as comprehensive and as up-to-date as possible to identify published, unpublished, and ongoing trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs, published or unpublished, reported in any language. Participants were cognitively healthy people, and at least 80% of the study population had to be aged 65 or older. Experimental interventions adhered to the following criteria: intervention was any form of interactive computerised cognitive intervention - including computer exercises, computer games, mobile devices, gaming console, and virtual reality - that involved repeated practice on standardised exercises of specified cognitive domain(s) for the purpose of enhancing cognitive function; the duration of the intervention was at least 12 weeks; cognitive outcomes were measured; and cognitive training interventions were compared with active or inactive control interventions.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We performed preliminary screening of search results using a 'crowdsourcing' method to identify RCTs. At least two review authors working independently screened the remaining citations against inclusion criteria. At least two review authors also independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias of included RCTs. Where appropriate, we synthesised data in random-effects meta-analyses, comparing computerised cognitive training (CCT) separately with active and inactive controls. We expressed treatment effects as standardised mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We used GRADE methods to describe the overall quality of the evidence for each outcome.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified eight RCTs with a total of 1183 participants. The duration of the interventions ranged from 12 to 26 weeks; in five trials, the duration of intervention was 12 or 13 weeks. The included studies had moderate risk of bias, and the overall quality of evidence was low or very low for all outcomes. We compared CCT first against active control interventions, such as watching educational videos. Negative SMDs favour CCT over control. Trial results suggest slight improvement in global cognitive function at the end of the intervention period (12 weeks) (standardised mean difference (SMD) -0.31, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.57 to -0.05; 232 participants; 2 studies; low-quality evidence). One of these trials also assessed global cognitive function 12 months after the end of the intervention; this trial provided no clear evidence of a persistent effect (SMD -0.21, 95% CI -0.66 to 0.24; 77 participants; 1 study; low-quality evidence). CCT may result in little or no difference at the end of the intervention period in episodic memory (12 to 17 weeks) (SMD 0.06, 95% CI -0.14 to 0.26; 439 participants; 4 studies; low-quality evidence) or working memory (12 to 16 weeks) (SMD -0.17, 95% CI -0.36 to 0.02; 392 participants; 3 studies; low-quality evidence). Because of the very low quality of the evidence, we are very uncertain about the effects of CCT on speed of processing and executive function. We also compared CCT to inactive control (no interventions). We found no data on our primary outcome of global cognitive function. At the end of the intervention, CCT may lead to slight improvement in episodic memory (6 months) (mean difference (MD) in Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test (RBMT) -0.90 points, 95% confidence interval (CI) -1.73 to -0.07; 150 participants; 1 study; low-quality evidence) but can have little or no effect on executive function (12 weeks to 6 months) (SMD -0.08, 95% CI -0.31 to 0.15; 292 participants; 2 studies; low-quality evidence), working memory (16 weeks) (MD -0.08, 95% CI -0.43 to 0.27; 60 participants; 1 study; low-quality evidence), or verbal fluency (6 months) (MD -0.11, 95% CI -1.58 to 1.36; 150 participants; 1 study; low-quality evidence). We could not determine any effects on speed of processing because the evidence was of very low quality. We found no evidence on quality of life, activities of daily living, or adverse effects in either comparison.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We found low-quality evidence suggesting that immediately after completion of the intervention, small benefits of CCT may be seen for global cognitive function when compared with active controls, and for episodic memory when compared with an inactive control. These benefits are of uncertain clinical importance. We found no evidence that the effect on global cognitive function persisted 12 months later. Our confidence in the results was low, reflecting the overall quality of the evidence. In five of the eight trials, the duration of the intervention was just three months. The possibility that more extensive training could yield larger benefit remains to be more fully explored. We found substantial literature on cognitive training, and collating all available scientific information posed problems. Duration of treatment may not be the best way to categorise interventions for inclusion. As the primary interest of older people and of guideline writers and policymakers involves sustained cognitive benefit, an alternative would be to categorise by length of follow-up after selecting studies that assess longer-term effects.

Differential effects of cognitive training modules in healthy aging and mild cognitive impairment: A comprehensive meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

This meta-analysis was designed to compare the effectiveness of 2 cognitive training modules, single-component training, which targets 1 specific cognitive ability, versus multicomponent training, which trains multiple cognitive abilities, on both trained abilities (near transfer) and untrained abilities (far transfer) in older adults. The meta-analysis also assessed whether individual differences in mental status interacted with the extent of transfer. Eligible randomized controlled trials (215 training studies) examined the immediate effects of cognitive training in either healthy aging (HA) or mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Results yielded an overall net-gain effect size (g) for the cognitive training of 0.28 (p < .001). These effects were similar across mental status and training modules, and were significant for both near (g = 0.37) and far (g = 0.22) transfer. Although all training modules yielded significant near transfer, only a few yielded significant far transfer. Single-component training of executive functions was most effective on near and far transfer, with processing speed training improving everyday functioning. All modules of multicomponent training (specific and nonspecific) yielded significant near and far transfer, including everyday functioning. Training effects on cognition were moderated by educational attainment and number of cognitive outcomes, but only in HA. These findings suggest that, in older adults, all modules of multicomponent training are more effective in engendering near and far transfer, including everyday functioning, when compared with single-component training modules. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Investigating associations between personality and the efficacy of interventions for cognitive ageing: A systematic review

The personal and societal impact of age-related cognitive decline supports the development of effective interventions. While some strategies, such as cognitive training, exercise or socio-intellectual engagement, appear beneficial, few studies have examined the association between personality and intervention efficacy. A systematic review was therefore conducted to summarise and synthesise the literature regarding the influence of personality traits on the effectiveness of non-pharmacological interventions for cognitive ageing. A systematic search of PubMed, PsycINFO and Web of Science was carried out. Of the 2100 papers identified by the search strategy, 10 studies were retained that met the relevant criteria (e.g., intervention studies with one or more cognitive outcomes and a measure of personality). Of these, two studies reported that higher levels of Openness to Experience were associated with greater improvement in memory performance after cognitive training interventions. Another found a positive association between Openness and improvement in divergent thinking following a novel group-based problem solving programme. One social intervention study reported positive moderating effects of Conscientiousness and Agreeableness, and mixed effects of Extraversion. Mixed evidence was also found regarding Need for Cognition, with one study reporting a positive association with memory improvement and another reporting less improvement in divergent thinking. Others found no evidence of personality influencing intervention outcomes. Due to the relatively small and heterogeneous sample of studies identified, any conclusions should currently be considered preliminary. These findings highlight the need for further research exploring the role of personality in intervention efficacy, so that interventions might be better tailored to individuals.

Computerised cognitive training for maintaining cognitive function in cognitively healthy people in late life

BACKGROUND

Increasing age is associated with a natural decline in cognitive function and is also the greatest risk factor for dementia. Cognitive decline and dementia are significant threats to independence and quality of life in older adults. Therefore, identifying interventions that help to maintain cognitive function in older adults or to reduce the risk of dementia is a research priority. Cognitive training uses repeated practice on standardised exercises targeting one or more cognitive domains and is intended to maintain optimum cognitive function. This review examines the effect of computerised cognitive training interventions lasting at least 12 weeks on the cognitive function of healthy adults aged 65 or older.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of computerised cognitive training interventions lasting at least 12 weeks for the maintenance or improvement of cognitive function in cognitively healthy people in late life.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched to 31 March 2018 in ALOIS (www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/alois) and performed additional searches of MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the WHO Portal/ICTRP (www.apps.who.int/trialsearch) to ensure that the search was as comprehensive and as up-to-date as possible, to identify published, unpublished, and ongoing trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs, published or unpublished, reported in any language. Participants were cognitively healthy people, and at least 80% of the study population had to be aged 65 or older. Experimental interventions adhered to the following criteria: intervention was any form of interactive computerised cognitive intervention - including computer exercises, computer games, mobile devices, gaming console, and virtual reality - that involved repeated practice on standardised exercises of specified cognitive domain(s) for the purpose of enhancing cognitive function; duration of the intervention was at least 12 weeks; cognitive outcomes were measured; and cognitive training interventions were compared with active or inactive control interventions.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We performed preliminary screening of search results using a 'crowdsourcing' method to identify RCTs. At least two review authors working independently screened the remaining citations against inclusion criteria. At least two review authors also independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias of included RCTs. Where appropriate, we synthesised data in random-effect meta-analyses, comparing computerised cognitive training (CCT) separately with active and inactive controls. We expressed treatment effects as standardised mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We used GRADE methods to describe the overall quality of the evidence for each outcome.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified eight RCTs with a total of 1183 participants. Researchers provided interventions over 12 to 26 weeks; in five trials, the duration of intervention was 12 or 13 weeks. The included studies had a moderate risk of bias. Review authors noted a lot of inconsistency between trial results. The overall quality of evidence was low or very low for all outcomes.We compared CCT first against active control interventions, such as watching educational videos. Because of the very low quality of the evidence, we were unable to determine any effect of CCT on our primary outcome of global cognitive function or on secondary outcomes of episodic memory, speed of processing, executive function, and working memory.We also compared CCT versus inactive control (no interventions). Negative SMDs favour CCT over control. We found no studies on our primary outcome of global cognitive function. In terms of our secondary outcomes, trial results suggest slight improvement in episodic memory (mean difference (MD) -0.90, 95% confidence interval (CI) -1.73 to -0.07; 150 participants; 1 study; low-quality evidence) and no effect on executive function (SMD -0.08, 95% CI -0.31 to 0.15; 292 participants; 2 studies; low-quality evidence), working memory (MD -0.08, 95% CI -0.43 to 0.27; 60 participants; 1 study; low-quality evidence), or verbal fluency (MD -0.11, 95% CI -1.58 to 1.36; 150 participants; 1 study; low-quality evidence). We could not determine any effects on speed of processing at trial endpoints because the evidence was of very low quality.We found no evidence on quality of life, activities of daily living, or adverse effects in either comparison.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We found little evidence from the included studies to suggest that 12 or more weeks of CCT improves cognition in healthy older adults. However, our limited confidence in the results reflects the overall quality of the evidence. Inconsistency between trials was a major limitation. In five of the eight trials, the duration of intervention was just three months. The possibility that longer periods of training could be beneficial remains to be more fully explored.

Computerised cognitive training for maintaining cognitive function in cognitively healthy people in midlife

BACKGROUND

Normal aging is associated with changes in cognitive function that are non-pathological and are not necessarily indicative of future neurocognitive disease. Low cognitive and brain reserve and limited cognitive stimulation are associated with increased risk of dementia. Emerging evidence now suggests that subtle cognitive changes, detectable years before criteria for mild cognitive impairment are met, may be predictive of future dementia. Important for intervention and reduction in disease risk, research also suggests that engaging in stimulating mental activity throughout adulthood builds cognitive and brain reserve and reduces dementia risk. Therefore, midlife (defined here as 40 to 65 years) may be a suitable time to introduce cognitive interventions for maintaining cognitive function and, in the longer term, possibly preventing or delaying the onset of clinical dementia.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of computerised cognitive training interventions lasting at least 12 weeks for maintaining or improving cognitive function in cognitively healthy people in midlife.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched up to 31 March 2018 in ALOIS (www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/alois), the specialised register of the Cochrane Dementia and Cognitive Improvement Group (CDCIG). We ran additional searches in MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the WHO Portal/ICTRP at www.apps.who.int/trialsearch, to ensure that the search was as comprehensive and as up-to-date as possible, to identify published, unpublished, and ongoing trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-RCTs, published or unpublished, reported in any language. Participants were cognitively healthy people between 40 and 65 years of age (80% of study population within this age range). Experimental interventions adhered to the following criteria: intervention was any form of interactive computerised cognitive intervention - including computer exercises, computer games, mobile devices, gaming console, and virtual reality - that involved repeated practice on standardised exercises of specified cognitive domain(s) for the purpose of enhancing cognitive function; duration of the intervention was at least 12 weeks; cognitive outcomes were measured; and cognitive training interventions were compared with active or inactive control interventions.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

For preliminary screening of search results, we used a 'crowd' method to identify RCTs. At least two review authors working independently screened remaining citations against inclusion criteria; independently extracted data; and assessed the quality of the included trial, using the Cochrane risk of bias assessment tool. We used GRADE to describe the overall quality of the evidence.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified one eligible study that examined the effect of computerised cognitive training (CCT) in 6742 participants over 50 years of age, with training and follow-up duration of six months. We considered the study to be at high risk of attrition bias and the overall quality of the evidence to be low.Researchers provided no data on our primary outcome. Results indicate that there may be a small advantage for the CCT group for executive function (mean difference (MD) -1.57, 95% confidence interval (CI) -1.85 to -1.29; participants = 3994; low-quality evidence) and a very small advantage for the control group for working memory (MD 0.09, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.15; participants = 5831; low-quality evidence). The intervention may have had little or no effect on episodic memory (MD -0.03, 95% CI -0.10 to 0.04; participants = 3090; low-quality evidence).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We found low-quality evidence from only one study. We are unable to determine whether computerised cognitive training is effective in maintaining global cognitive function among healthy adults in midlife. We strongly recommend that high-quality studies be undertaken to investigate the effectiveness and acceptability of cognitive training in midlife, using interventions that last long enough that they may have enduring effects on cognitive and brain reserve, and with investigators following up long enough to assess effects on clinically important outcomes in later life.

Computerised cognitive training for preventing dementia in people with mild cognitive impairment

BACKGROUND

The number of people living with dementia is increasing rapidly. Clinical dementia does not develop suddenly, but rather is preceded by a period of cognitive decline beyond normal age-related change. People at this intermediate stage between normal cognitive function and clinical dementia are often described as having mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Considerable research and clinical efforts have been directed toward finding disease-modifying interventions that may prevent or delay progression from MCI to clinical dementia.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of at least 12 weeks of computerised cognitive training (CCT) on maintaining or improving cognitive function and preventing dementia in people with mild cognitive impairment.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched to 31 May 2018 in ALOIS (www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/alois) and ran additional searches in MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the WHO portal/ICTRP (www.apps.who.int/trialsearch) to identify published, unpublished, and ongoing trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs in which cognitive training via interactive computerised technology was compared with an active or inactive control intervention. Experimental computerised cognitive training (CCT) interventions had to adhere to the following criteria: minimum intervention duration of 12 weeks; any form of interactive computerised cognitive training, including computer exercises, computer games, mobile devices, gaming console, and virtual reality. Participants were adults with a diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or mild neurocognitive disorder (MND), or otherwise at high risk of cognitive decline.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently extracted data and assessed risk of bias of the included RCTs. We expressed treatment effects as mean differences (MDs) or standardised mean differences (SMDs) for continuous outcomes and as risk ratios (RRs) for dichotomous outcomes. We used the GRADE approach to describe the overall quality of evidence for each outcome.

MAIN RESULTS

Eight RCTs with a total of 660 participants met review inclusion criteria. Duration of the included trials varied from 12 weeks to 18 months. Only one trial used an inactive control. Most studies were at unclear or high risk of bias in several domains. Overall, our ability to draw conclusions was hampered by very low-quality evidence. Almost all results were very imprecise; there were also problems related to risk of bias, inconsistency between trials, and indirectness of the evidence.No trial provided data on incident dementia. For comparisons of CCT with both active and inactive controls, the quality of evidence on our other primary outcome of global cognitive function immediately after the intervention period was very low. Therefore, we were unable to draw any conclusions about this outcome.Due to very low quality of evidence, we were also unable to determine whether there was any effect of CCT compared to active control on our secondary outcomes of episodic memory, working memory, executive function, depression, functional performance, and mortality. We found low-quality evidence suggesting that there is probably no effect on speed of processing (SMD 0.20, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.16 to 0.56; 2 studies; 119 participants), verbal fluency (SMD -0.16, 95% CI -0.76 to 0.44; 3 studies; 150 participants), or quality of life (mean difference (MD) 0.40, 95% CI -1.85 to 2.65; 1 study; 19 participants).When CCT was compared with inactive control, we obtained data on five secondary outcomes, including episodic memory, executive function, verbal fluency, depression, and functional performance. We found very low-quality evidence; therefore, we were unable to draw any conclusions about these outcomes.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Currently available evidence does not allow us to determine whether or not computerised cognitive training will prevent clinical dementia or improve or maintain cognitive function in those who already have evidence of cognitive impairment. Small numbers of trials, small samples, risk of bias, inconsistency between trials, and highly imprecise results mean that it is not possible to derive any implications for clinical practice, despite some observed large effect sizes from individual studies. Direct adverse events are unlikely to occur, although the time and sometimes the money involved in computerised cognitive training programmes may represent significant burdens. Further research is necessary and should concentrate on improving methodological rigour, selecting suitable outcomes measures, and assessing generalisability and persistence of any effects. Trials with long-term follow-up are needed to determine the potential of this intervention to reduce the risk of dementia.

Validation of a multidirectional locomotive dual-task paradigm to evaluate task-related differences in event-related electro-cortical activity

A fundamental aspect of everyday function is the ability to simultaneously execute both cognitive and motor tasks. The ability to perform such tasks is commonly assessed using a dual-task paradigm that has the capacity to manipulate both cognitive and motor components of an action. Dual-task performance provides an opportunity to obtain an insight into how cognitive and motor function are affected during natural tasks (e.g., locomotion). The following study aimed to determine the effectiveness of using a goal-directed multidirectional locomotor task to measure differences in task-related (tasks of increasing difficulty) electro-cortical activity. In the single-task condition participants walked around a grid-based track, performing directional changes at each intersection in response to a sensory stimulus. In the dual-task condition participants performed the same primary task while performing a simultaneous memory recall task. Behavioural differences in trial completion time and electro-cortical activity were identified in relation to the posterior N2 and P3 component mean amplitudes. The results showed that, while performing a higher-level cognitive task during walking (dual-task), interference arises in a shared system that influences neural mechanisms involved in attention and selection for action, and later cognitive processes recruited in working memory and cognitive control. This study extends previous work and shows that performing a more complex cognitive task while walking, elicits interference effects sensitive to higher-level cognitive processes, and takes the next step towards measurement of electro-cortical activity within naturalistic environments.

What Does the n-Back Task Measure as We Get Older? Relations Between Working-Memory Measures and Other Cognitive Functions Across the Lifespan

Working memory (WM) declines with increasing age. The WM capacity is often measured by means of the computerized version of the n-back task. Although the n-back task is widely used in aging research, little is known about its construct validity and specific cognitive functions involved in this task. Moreover, to date, no studies analyzed the construct validity as a function of age. To this end, we conducted a study in a sample of N = 533 individuals aged between 20 and 80 years. The sample was divided into three age groups: young (20-40), middle-aged (41-60), and old (61-80 years). A number of psychometric tests was selected that measure attention, memory, and executive control to elucidate the impact of these constructs on n-back performance. A series of correlation analyses was conducted to assess the relationship between n-back performance and specific cognitive functions in each age group separately. The results show a progressive increase in reaction times and a decrease in the proportion of detected targets from young to old subjects. Age-related impairments were also found in all psychometric tests except for the vocabulary choice test measuring crystallized intelligence. Most importantly, correlations yielded different age-related patterns of functions contributing to performance in the n-back task: whereas performance was most related to executive functions in young age, a combination of attentional and executive processes was associated with performance in middle-aged subjects. In contrast, in older age, mainly attentional, verbal memory, and updating and to a lesser extent executive processes seem to play a crucial role in the n-back task, suggesting a shift of processing strategies across the lifespan.

Warm-up cognitive activity enhances inhibitory function

Society is aging worldwide. To promote the health and quality of life in elderly people, we must find a way to enhance and improve cognitive function, especially inhibitory function that suppresses inappropriate behaviors. Previous studies have indicated that warm-up cognitive activities enhanced the activation of appropriate behavior. As with the activation of appropriate behavior, inhibitory function is expected to be enhanced by a warm-up activity, although this theory has not yet been directly tested. Here, we investigated whether inhibitory function in a task was enhanced by a warm-up activity. We used a Navon task as a warm-up activity, in which reading small letters (local Navon task) required inhibitory function more than reading a large letter (global Navon task). The Stroop task was used as the subsequent task. Our results showed that the accuracy of the Stroop task after the local Navon task was higher than after the global Navon task. This outcome suggests that inhibitory function in the Stroop task was enhanced by the local Navon task, which was an inhibitory warm-up cognitive activity. Moreover, this study contributes to the development of new techniques of cognitive training to prevent the decline in inhibitory function during aging or other clinical scenarios, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Task-Switching Training and Transfer

Abstract. We used task-switching (TS) paradigms to study how cognitive training can compensate age-related cognitive decline. Thirty-nine young (age span: 18–25 years) and 40 older (age span: 60–75 years) women were assigned to training and control groups. The training group received 8 one-hour long cognitive training sessions in which the difficulty level of TS was individually adjusted. The other half of the sample did not receive any intervention. The reference task was an informatively cued TS paradigm with nogo stimuli. Performance was measured on reference, near-transfer, and far-transfer tasks by behavioral indicators and event-related potentials (ERPs) before training, 1 month after pretraining, and in case of older adults, 1 year later. The results showed that young adults had better pretraining performance. The reference task was too difficult for older adults to form appropriate representations as indicated by the behavioral data and the lack of P3b components. But after training older adults reached the level of performance of young participants, and accordingly, P3b emerged after both the cue and the target. Training gain was observed also in near-transfer tasks, and partly in far-transfer tasks; working memory and executive functions did not improve, but we found improvement in alerting and orienting networks, and in the execution of variants of TS paradigms. Behavioral and ERP changes remained preserved even after 1 year. These findings suggest that with an appropriate training procedure older adults can reach the level of performance seen in young adults and these changes persist for a long period. The training also affects the unpracticed tasks, but the transfer depends on the extent of task similarities.

Effects of Physical Exercise on the P300 of Elderly With Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Evidence regarding the benefits of physical activity on the mental processing information of patients with Alzheimer's disease assessed objectively is scarce and can be observed through event-related potentials, such as the P300. The aim of the study was to identify the effects of physical exercises on mental processing information in the elderly with Alzheimer's disease through neurophysiological measures (P300 amplitude and latency) and reaction time.

METHODS

A total of 31 patients with Alzheimer's disease participated in this study: 14 in functional exercise (FE) group and 17 in social gathering (SG) group who carried out three 1-hour sessions per week of FE and SG activities, respectively, for a 12-week period. All groups performed an auditory oddball task. A healthy elderly control group also participated.

RESULTS

Significant (P < .05) improvements were observed as a reduction of reaction time after intervention in the FE group (pre = 421.5 ms and post = 360.9 ms). Also, an increase of P300 amplitude at central midline (pre = 5.9 μV and post = 6.9 μV) and parietal midline (pre = 4.7 μV and post = 5.7 μV) was observed in the FE. Finally, a decrease in the P300 latency at frontal midline (pre = 377 ms and post = 367 ms) was observed in the SG after the intervention.

CONCLUSION

Physical exercise decreases reaction time and suggests a recovery in cortical activity, whereas SG activities could probably facilitate information processing.

ERP and Behavioral Effects of Physical and Cognitive Training on Working Memory in Aging: A Randomized Controlled Study

Working memory (WM) performance decreases with age. A promising method to improve WM is physical or cognitive training. The present randomized controlled study is aimed at evaluating the effects of different training methods on WM. A sample of 141 healthy older adults (mean age 70 years) was assigned to one of four groups: physical training, cognitive training, a social control group, and a no-contact control group. The participants trained for four months. Before and after the training, n-back task during an EEG recording was applied. The results show that cognitive training enhanced the target detection rate in the 2-back task. This was corroborated by an increased number of repeated digits in the backward digit-span test but not in other memory tests. The improvement of WM was supported by an increased P3a prior to a correct target and an increased P3b both in nontarget and target trials. No ERP effects in the physical and no-contact control groups were found, while a reduction of P3a and P3b was found in the social control group. Thus, cognitive training enhances frontal and parietal processing related to the maintenance of a stored stimulus for subsequent matching with an upcoming stimulus and increases allocation of cognitive resources. These results indicate that multidomain cognitive training may increase WM capacity and neuronal activity in older age.

Game-based training of flexibility and attention improves task-switch performance: near and far transfer of cognitive training in an EEG study

There is a demand for ways to enhance cognitive flexibility, as it can be a limiting factor for performance in daily life. Video game training has been linked to advantages in cognitive functioning, raising the question if training with video games can promote cognitive flexibility. In the current study, we investigated if game-based computerized cognitive training (GCCT) could enhance cognitive flexibility in a healthy young adult sample (N = 72), as measured by task-switch performance. Three GCCT schedules were contrasted, which targeted: (1) cognitive flexibility and task switching, (2) attention and working memory, or (3) an active control involving basic math games, in twenty 45-min sessions across 4-6 weeks. Performance on an alternating-runs task-switch paradigm during pretest and posttest sessions indicated greater overall reaction time improvements after both flexibility and attention training as compared to control, although not related to local switch cost. Flexibility training enhanced performance in the presence of distractor-related interference. In contrast, attention training was beneficial when low task difficulty undermined sustained selective attention. Furthermore, flexibility training improved response selection as indicated by a larger N2 amplitude after training as compared to control, and more efficient conflict monitoring as indicated by reduced Nc/CRN and larger Pe amplitude after training. These results provide tentative support for the efficacy of GCCT and suggest that an ideal training might include both task switching and attention components, with maximal task diversity both within and between training games.

Effects of physical activity on the P300 component in elderly people: a systematic review

The effects of physical activity on brain function can be assessed through event-related potentials (P300) that reflect cortical activities related to cognitive functions. P300 latency represents the information processing time; longer latencies represent slower processing. P300 amplitude is associated with the attentional system and working memory, with higher amplitudes representing more preserved functions. This systematic review summarizes the literature concerning the effects of physical activity and exercise on P300 in the elderly. Databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, MEDLINE/PubMed, and Biological Abstracts, were searched for articles up to November 2015. Articles were considered for inclusion if they were studies of the elderly, assessed P300, and evaluated the influence of physical activity on P300 or the effect of physical exercise training on P300. Of the 1227 articles found, 14 investigations matched the inclusion criteria. Nine analyzed the influence of physical activity on P300 in the elderly, and five examined the effects of physical exercise on P300 in the elderly. The obtained results showed that physically active elderly people have shortened P300 latency and higher amplitude. Physical exercise, especially those involving aerobic or resistance training, seems to have marked beneficial effects on P300 in the elderly. Evidence shows that physical activity and physical exercise positively influence cortical activities related to cognitive functions, as indicated by P300, in elderly people.

Cognitive Interventions for Cognitively Healthy, Mildly Impaired, and Mixed Samples of Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized-Controlled Trials

Cognitive interventions may improve cognition, delay age-related cognitive declines, and improve quality of life for older adults. The current meta-analysis was conducted to update and expand previous work on the efficacy of cognitive interventions for older adults and to examine the impact of key demographic and methodological variables. EBSCOhost and Embase online databases and reference lists were searched to identify relevant randomized-controlled trials (RCTs) of cognitive interventions for cognitively healthy or mildly impaired (MCI) older adults (60+ years). Interventions trained a single cognitive domain (e.g., memory) or were multi-domain training, and outcomes were assessed immediately post-intervention using standard neuropsychological tests. In total, 279 effects from 97 studies were pooled based on a random-effects model and expressed as Hedges' g (unbiased). Overall, results indicated that cognitive interventions produce a small, but significant, improvement in the cognitive functioning of older adults, relative to active and passive control groups (g = 0.298, p < .001, 95% CI = 0.248-0.347). These results were confirmed using multi-level analyses adjusting for nesting of effect sizes within studies (g = 0.362, p < .001, 95% CI = 0.275, 0.449). Age, education, and cognitive status (healthy vs. MCI) were not significant moderators. Working memory interventions proved most effective (g = 0.479), though memory, processing speed, and multi-domain interventions also significantly improved cognition. Effects were larger for directly trained outcomes but were also significant for non-trained outcomes (i.e., "transfer effects"). Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed. This project was pre-registered with PROSPERO (#42016038386).

A Randomized Controlled ERP Study on the Effects of Multi-Domain Cognitive Training and Task Difficulty on Task Switching Performance in Older Adults

Executive functions are subject to a marked age-related decline, but have been shown to benefit from cognitive training interventions. As of yet, it is, however, still relatively unclear which neural mechanism can mediate training-related performance gains. In the present electrophysiological study, we examined the effects of multi-domain cognitive training on performance in an untrained cue-based task switch paradigm featuring Stroop color words: participants either had to indicate the word meaning of Stroop stimuli (word task) or perform the more difficult task of color naming (color task). One-hundred and three older adults (>65 years old) were randomly assigned to a training group receiving a 4-month multi-domain cognitive training, a passive no-contact control group or an active (social) control group receiving a 4-month relaxation training. For all groups, we recorded performance and EEG measures before and after the intervention. For the cognitive training group, but not for the two control groups, we observed an increase in response accuracy at posttest, irrespective of task and trial type. No training-related effects on reaction times were found. Cognitive training was also associated with an overall increase in N2 amplitude and a decrease of P2 latency on single trials. Training-related performance gains were thus likely mediated by an enhancement of response selection and improved access to relevant stimulus-response mappings. Additionally, cognitive training was associated with an amplitude decrease in the time window of the target-locked P3 at fronto-central electrodes. An increase in the switch positivity during advance task preparation emerged after both cognitive and relaxation training. Training-related behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) effects were not modulated by task difficulty. The data suggest that cognitive training increased slow negative potentials during target processing which enhanced the N2 and reduced a subsequent P3-like component on both switch and non-switch trials and irrespective of task difficulty. Our findings further corroborate the effectiveness of multi-domain cognitive training in older adults and indicate that ERPs can be instrumental in uncovering the neural processes underlying training-related performance gains.

Steps to Health in Cognitive Aging: Effects of Physical Activity on Spatial Attention and Executive Control in the Elderly

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether physical activity (PA) habits may positively impact performance of the orienting and executive control networks in community-dwelling aging individuals and diabetics, who are at risk of cognitive dysfunction. To this aim, we tested cross-sectionally whether age, ranging from late middle-age to old adulthood, and PA level independently or interactively predict different facets of the attentional performance. Hundred and thirty female and male individuals and 22 adults with type 2 diabetes aged 55–84 years were recruited and their daily PA (steps) was objectively measured by means of armband monitors. Participants performed a multifunctional attentional go/no-go reaction time (RT) task in which spatial attention was cued by means of informative direct cues of different sizes followed by compound stimuli with local and global target features. The performance efficiency of the orienting networks was estimated by computing RT differences between validly and invalidly cued trials, that of the executive control networks by computing local switch costs that are RT differences between switch and non-switch trials in mixed blocks of global and local target trials. In regression analyses performed on the data of non-diabetic elderlies, overall RTs and orienting effects resulted jointly predicted by age and steps. Age predicted overall RTs in low-active individuals, but orienting effects and response errors in high-active individuals. Switch costs were predicted by age only, with larger costs at older age. In the analysis conducted with the 22 diabetics and 22 matched non-diabetic elderlies, diabetic status and daily steps predicted longer and shorter RTs, respectively. Results suggest that high PA levels exert beneficial, but differentiated effects on processing speed and attentional networks performance in aging individuals that partially counteract the detrimental effects of advancing age and diabetic status. In conclusion, adequate levels of overall PA may positively impinge on brain efficiency and attentional control and should be therefore promoted by actions that support lifelong PA participation and impact the built environment to render it more conducive to PA.

Cognitive Training Sustainably Improves Executive Functioning in Middle-Aged Industry Workers Assessed by Task Switching: A Randomized Controlled ERP Study

Recently, we reported results of a cross-sectional study investigating executive functions in dependence of aging and type of work. That study showed deficits in performance and electrophysiological activity in middle-aged workers with long-term repetitive and unchallenging work. Based on these findings, we conducted a longitudinal study that aimed at ameliorating these cognitive deficits by means of a trainer-guided cognitive training (CT) in 57 further middle-aged workers with repetitive type of work from the same factory. This study was designed as a randomized controlled trail with pre- (t1), post- (t2), and a 3-month follow-up (t3) measure. The waiting control group was trained between t2 and t3. The training lasted 3 months (20 sessions) and was evaluated with the same task switching paradigm used in the previous cross-sectional study. The CT improved performance in accuracy at the behavioral level and affected the electrophysiological correlates of retrieval of stimulus-response sets (P2), response selection (N2), and error detection (Ne), thus unveiling the neuronal background of the behavioral effects. The same training effects were observed in the waiting control group after CT at t3. Moreover, at t3, most of the behavioral and electrophysiological training-induced changes were found stable. Hence, CT appears to be an important intervention for compensating cognitive deficits in executive functions in middle-aged employees with cognitively unchallenging work.

ERP Correlates of Simulated Purchase Decisions

Decision making in economic context is an everyday activity but its neuronal correlates are poorly understood. The present study aimed at investigating the electrophysiological brain activity during simulated purchase decisions of technical products for a lower or higher price relative to a mean price estimated in a pilot study. Expectedly, participants mostly decided to buy a product when it was cheap and not to buy when it was expensive. However, in some trials they made counter-conformity decisions to buy a product for a higher than the average price or not to buy it despite an attractive price. These responses took more time and the variability of the response latency was enhanced relative to conformity responses. ERPs showed enhanced conflict related fronto-central N2 during both types of counter-conformity compared to conformity decisions. A reverse pattern was found for the P3a and P3b. The response-locked P3 (r-P3) was larger and the subsequent CNV smaller for counter-conformity than conformity decisions. We assume that counter-conformity decisions elevate the response threshold (larger N2), intensify response evaluation (r-P3) and attenuate the preparation for the next trial (CNV). These effects were discussed in the framework of the functional role of the fronto-parietal cortex in economic decision making.

Behavioral and neurophysiological evidence for increased cognitive flexibility in late childhood

Executive functions, like the capacity to control and organize thoughts and behavior, develop from childhood to young adulthood. Although task switching and working memory processes are known to undergo strong developmental changes from childhood to adulthood, it is currently unknown how task switching processes are modulated between childhood and adulthood given that working memory processes are central to task switching. The aim of the current study is therefore to examine this question using a combined cue- and memory-based task switching paradigm in children (N = 25) and young adults (N = 25) in combination with neurophysiological (EEG) methods. We obtained an unexpected paradoxical effect suggesting that memory-based task switching is better in late childhood than in young adulthood. No group differences were observed in cue-based task switching. The neurophysiological data suggest that this effect is not due to altered attentional selection (P1, N1) or processes related to the updating, organization, and implementation of the new task-set (P3). Instead, alterations were found in the resolution of task-set conflict and the selection of an appropriate response (N2) when a task has to be switched. Our observation contrasts findings showing that cognitive control mechanisms reach their optimal functioning in early adulthood.

Physical activity and neurocognitive functioning in aging - a condensed updated review

This condensed review gives an overview about two methodological approaches to study the impact of physical activity on cognition in elderly, namely cross-sectional studies and randomized controlled intervention studies with pre- and post-measures. Moreover, this review includes studies investigating different types of physical activity and their relation to cognitive functions in older age. Behavioral data are considered but the main focus lies on neuroscientific methods like event-related potentials (ERPs) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

The ultra-slow NAT2*6A haplotype is associated with reduced higher cognitive functions in an elderly study group

N-Acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2) genotype is associated with age-related declines in basic sensory hearing functions. However, the possible modulatory role of NAT2 for higher cognitive functions has not yet been studied. We tested auditory goal-directed behavior and attentional control in 120 NAT2 genotyped subjects (63-88 years), using an auditory distraction paradigm in which participants responded to the duration of long and short tone stimuli. We studied involuntary shifts in attention to task-irrelevant deviant stimuli and applied event-related potentials (ERPs) to examine which cognitive subprocesses are affected by NAT2 status on a neurophysiological level. Relative to the standard stimuli, deviant stimuli decreased performance in the recently described ultra-slow acetylators (NAT2*6A and *7B): The increase in error-corrected reaction times (a combined measure of response speed and accuracy) in ultra-slow acetylators (254 ms increase) was more than twice as high as in the rapid acetylator reference group (111 ms increase; p < 0.01). The increase was still higher than in the other slow acetylators (149 ms increase, p < 0.05). In addition, clear differences were found in the ERP results: Ultra-slow acetylators showed deficits specifically in the automatic detection of changes in the acoustic environment as evidenced by reduced mismatch negativity (MMN, p < 0.005 compared to rapid acetylators). Refocussing of attention after a distracting event was also impaired in the ultra-slow acetylators as evidenced by a reduced re-orienting negativity (RON, p < 0.01 compared to rapid acetylators). In conclusion, the ultra-slow acetylation status was associated with reduced higher cognitive functions.