A Reduction in Video Gaming Time Produced a Decrease in Brain Activity

Co-activation patterns during viewing of different video game genres

Past research has revealed cognitive improvements resulting from engagement with both traditional action video games and newer action-like video games, such as action real-time strategy games (ARSG). However, the cortical dynamics elicited by different video gaming genres remain unclear. This study explored the temporal dynamics of cortical networks in response to different gaming genres. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data were obtained during eye-closed resting and passive viewing of gameplay videos of three genres: life simulation games (LSG), first-person shooter games (FPS), and ARSG. Data analysis used a seed-free Co-Activation Pattern (CAP) based on Regions of Interest (ROIs). When comparing the viewing of action-like video games (FPS and ARSG) to LSG viewing, significant dynamic distinctions were observed in both primary and higher-order networks. Within action-like video games, compared to FPS viewing, ARSG viewing elicited a more pronounced increase in the Fraction of Time and Counts of attentional control-related CAPs, along with an increased Transition Probability from sensorimotor-related CAPs to attentional control-related CAPs. Compared to ARSG viewing, FPS viewing elicited a significant increase in the Fraction of Time of sensorimotor-related CAPs, when gaming experience was considered as a covariate. Thus, different video gaming genres, including distinct action-like video gaming genres, elicited unique dynamic patterns in whole-brain CAPs, potentially influencing the development of various cognitive processes.

Behavioral state-dependent associations between EEG temporal correlations and depressive symptoms

Previous studies have shown abnormal long-range temporal correlations in neuronal oscillations among individuals with Major Depressive Disorders, occurring during both resting states and transitions between resting and task states. However, the understanding of this effect in preclinical individuals with depression remains limited. This study investigated the association between temporal correlations of neuronal oscillations and depressive symptoms during resting and task states in preclinical individuals, specifically focusing on male action video gaming experts. Detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA), Lifetimes, and Waitingtimes were employed to explore temporal correlations across long-range and short-range scales. The results indicated widespread changes from the resting state to the task state across all frequency bands and temporal scales. Rest-task DFA changes in the alpha band exhibited a negative correlation with depressive scores at most electrodes. Significant positive correlations between DFA values and depressive scores were observed in the alpha band during the resting state but not in the task state. Similar patterns of results emerged concerning maladaptive negative emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, short-range temporal correlations in the alpha band echoed the DFA results. These findings underscore the state-dependent relationships between temporal correlations of neuronal oscillations and depressive symptoms, as well as maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, in preclinical individuals.

Information transmission in action video gaming experts: Inferences from the lateralized readiness potential

Research showed that action real-time strategy gaming (ARSG) experience is related to cognitive and neural plasticity, including visual selective attention and working memory, executive control, and information processing. This study explored the relationship between ARSG experience and information transmission in the auditory channel. Using an auditory, two-choice, go/no-go task and lateralized readiness potential (LRP) as the index to partial information transmission, this study examined information transmission patterns in ARSG experts and amateurs. Results showed that experts had a higher accuracy rate than amateurs. More importantly, experts had a smaller stimulus-locked LRP component (250 – 450 ms) than amateurs on no-go trials, while the response-locked LRP component (0 – 300 ms) on go trials did not differ between groups. Thus, whereas amateurs used an asynchronous information transmission pattern, experts used a reduced asynchronous information transmission pattern or a synchronous pattern where most of processing occurred prior to response execution – an information transmission pattern that supports rapid, error-free performance. Thus, experts and amateurs may use different information transmission patterns in auditory processing. In addition, the information transmission pattern used by experts is typically observed only after long-term auditory training according to past research. This study supports the relationship between ARSG experience and the development of information processing patterns.

Association of Extensive Video Gaming and Cognitive Function Changes in Brain-Imaging Studies of Pro Gamers and Individuals With Gaming Disorder: Systematic Literature Review

BACKGROUND

The World Health Organization announced the inclusion of gaming disorder (GD) in the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision, despite some concerns. However, video gaming has been associated with the enhancement of cognitive function. Moreover, despite comparable extensive video gaming, pro gamers have not shown any of the negative symptoms that individuals with GD have reported. It is important to understand the association between extensive video gaming and alterations in brain regions more objectively.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to systematically explore the association between extensive video gaming and changes in cognitive function by focusing on pro gamers and individuals with GD.

METHODS

Studies about pro gamers and individuals with GD were searched for in the PubMed and Web of Science databases using relevant search terms, for example, "pro-gamers" and "(Internet) gaming disorder." While studies for pro gamers were searched for without date restrictions, only studies published since 2013 about individuals with GD were included in search results. Article selection was conducted by following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines.

RESULTS

By following the PRISMA guidelines, 1903 records with unique titles were identified. Through the screening process of titles and abstracts, 86 full-text articles were accessed to determine their eligibility. A total of 18 studies were included in this systematic review. Among the included 18 studies, six studies included pro gamers as participants, one study included both pro gamers and individuals with GD, and 11 studies included individuals with GD. Pro gamers showed structural and functional alterations in brain regions (eg, the left cingulate cortex, the insula subregions, and the prefrontal regions). Cognitive function (eg, attention and sensorimotor function) and cognitive control improved in pro gamers. Individuals with GD showed structural and functional alterations in brain regions (eg, the striatum, the orbitofrontal cortex, and the amygdala) that were associated with impaired cognitive control and higher levels of craving video game playing. They also showed increased cortical thickness in the middle temporal cortex, which indicated the acquisition of better skills. Moreover, it was suggested that various factors (eg, gaming expertise, duration or severity of GD, and level of self-control) seemed to modulate the association of extensive video game playing with changes in cognitive function.

CONCLUSIONS

Although a limited number of studies were identified that included pro gamers and/or individuals who reported showing symptoms of GD for more than 1 year, this review contributed to the objective understanding of the association between extensive video game playing and changes in cognitive function. Conducting studies with a longitudinal design or with various comparison groups in the future would be helpful in deepening the understanding of this association.

Action Video Gaming Experience Related to Altered Resting-State EEG Temporal and Spatial Complexity

Action video gaming (AVG) places sustained cognitive load on various behavioral systems, thus offering new insights into learning-related neural plasticity. This study aims to determine whether AVG experience is associated with resting-state electroencephalogram (rs-EEG) temporal and spatial complexity, and if so, whether this effect is observable across AVG subgenres. Two AVG games - League of Legends (LOL) and Player Unknown's Battle Grounds (PUBG) that represent two major AVG subgenres - were examined. We compared rs-EEG microstate and omega complexity between LOL experts and non-experts (Experiment 1) and between PUBG experts and non-experts (Experiment 2). We found that the experts and non-experts had different rs-EEG activities in both experiments, thus revealing the adaptive effect of AVG experience on brain development. Furthermore, we also found certain subgenre-specific complexity changes, supporting the recent proposal that AVG should be categorized based on the gaming mechanics of a specific game rather than a generic genre designation.

The Influence of Action Video Gaming Experience on the Perception of Emotional Faces and Emotional Word Meaning

Action video gaming (AVG) experience has been found related to sensorimotor and attentional development. However, the influence of AVG experience on the development of emotional perception skills is still unclear. Using behavioral and ERP measures, this study examined the relationship between AVG experience and the ability to decode emotional faces and emotional word meanings. AVG experts and amateurs completed an emotional word-face Stroop task prior to (the pregaming phase) and after (the postgaming phase) a 1 h AVG session. Within-group comparisons showed that after the 1 h AVG session, a more negative N400 was observed in both groups of participants, and a more negative N170 was observed in the experts. Between-group comparisons showed that the experts had a greater change of N170 and N400 amplitudes across phases than the amateurs. The results suggest that both the 1 h and long-term AVG experiences may be related to an increased difficulty of emotional perception. Furthermore, certain behavioral and ERP measures showed neither within- nor between-group differences, suggesting that the relationship between AVG experience and emotional perception skills still needs further research.

Single-Trial Recognition of Video Gamer's Expertise from Brain Haemodynamic and Facial Emotion Responses

With an increase in consumer demand of video gaming entertainment, the game industry is exploring novel ways of game interaction such as providing direct interfaces between the game and the gamers’ cognitive or affective responses. In this work, gamer’s brain activity has been imaged using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) whilst they watch video of a video game (League of Legends) they play. A video of the face of the participants is also recorded for each of a total of 15 trials where a trial is defined as watching a gameplay video. From the data collected, i.e., gamer’s fNIRS data in combination with emotional state estimation from gamer’s facial expressions, the expertise level of the gamers has been decoded per trial in a multi-modal framework comprising of unsupervised deep feature learning and classification by state-of-the-art models. The best tri-class classification accuracy is obtained using a cascade of random convolutional kernel transform (ROCKET) feature extraction method and deep classifier at 91.44%. This is the first work that aims at decoding expertise level of gamers using non-restrictive and portable technologies for brain imaging, and emotional state recognition derived from gamers’ facial expressions. This work has profound implications for novel designs of future human interactions with video games and brain-controlled games.

Action Real-Time Strategy Gaming Experience Related to Enhanced Capacity of Visual Working Memory

Action real-time strategy gaming (ARSG)—a major genre of action video gaming (AVG)—has both action and strategy elements. ARSG requires attention, visual working memory (VWM), sensorimotor skills, team cooperation, and strategy-making abilities, thus offering promising insights into the learning-induced plasticity. However, it is yet unknown whether the ARSG experience is related to the development of VWM capacity. Using both behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) measurements, this study tested whether ARSG experts had larger VWM capacity than non-experts in a change detection task. The behavioral results showed that ARSG experts had higher accuracy and larger VWM capacity than non-experts. In addition, the ERP results revealed that the difference wave of the contralateral delay activity (CDA) component (size 4–size 2) elicited by experts was significantly larger than that of non-experts, suggesting that the VWM capacity was higher in experts than in non-experts. Thus, the findings suggested that prolonged ARSG experience is correlative with the enhancement of VWM.

Processing speed and attention training modifies autonomic flexibility: A mechanistic intervention study

Adaptation capacity is critical for maintaining cognition, yet it is understudied in groups at risk for dementia. Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is critical for neurovisceral integration and is a key contributor to adaptation capacity. To determine the central nervous system's top-down regulation of ANS, we conducted a mechanistic randomized controlled trial study, using a 6-week processing speed and attention (PS/A)-targeted intervention. Eighty-four older adults with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) were randomized to a 6-week PS/A-targeted intervention or an active control without PS/A. Utilizing repeated measures (i.e., PS/A test different from the intervention, resting and cognitive task-based ECG, and resting fMRI) at baseline, immediately post-intervention (post-test), and 6-month follow-up, we aimed to test whether PS/A causally influences vagal control of ANS via their shared central neural pathways in aMCI. We indexed vagal control of ANS using high-frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV) extracted from ECG data. Functional brain connectivity patterns were extracted from fMRI using advanced statistical tools. Compared to the control group, the intervention group showed significant improvement in PS/A, HF-HRV, salience network (SN), central executive network (CEN), and frontal parietal network (FPN) connectivity at post-test; the effect on SN, CEN, and FPN remained at 6-month follow-up. Changes in PS/A and SN connectivity significantly predicted change in HF-HRV from baseline to post-test and/or 6-month-follow-up. Age, neurodegeneration, nor sex did not affect these relationships. This work provides novel support for top-down regulation of PS/A and associated SN on vagal control of ANS. Intervening PS/A may be a viable approach for promoting adaptation capacity in groups at risk for dementia.

Action Real-Time Strategy Gaming Experience Related to Increased Attentional Resources: An Attentional Blink Study

Action real-time strategy gaming (ARSG) is a cognitively demanding task which requires attention, sensorimotor skills, team cooperation, and strategy-making abilities. A recent study found that ARSG experts had superior visual selective attention (VSA) for detecting the location of a moving object that could appear in one of 24 different peripheral locations (Qiu et al., 2018), suggesting that ARSG experience is related to improvements in the spatial component of VSA. However, the influence of ARSG experience on the temporal component of VSA-the detection of an item among a sequence of items presented consecutively and quickly at a single location-still remains understudied. Using behavioral and electrophysiological measures, this study examined whether ARSG experts had superior temporal VSA performance compared to non-experts in an attentional blink (AB) task, which is typically used to examine temporal VSA. The results showed that the experts outperformed the non-experts in their detection rates of targets. Furthermore, compared to the non-experts, the experts had faster information processing as indicated by earlier P3 peak latencies in an AB period, more attentional resources distributed to targets as indicated by stronger P3 amplitudes, and a more flexible deployment of attentional resources. These findings suggest that experts were less prone to the AB effect. Thus, long-term ARSG experience is related to improvements in temporal VSA. The current findings support the benefit of video gaming experience on the development of VSA.

Commercial video games and cognitive functions: video game genres and modulating factors of cognitive enhancement

Background

Unlike the emphasis on negative results of video games such as the impulsive engagement in video games, cognitive training studies in individuals with cognitive deficits showed that characteristics of video game elements were helpful to train cognitive functions. Thus, this study aimed to have a more balanced view toward the video game playing by reviewing genres of commercial video games and the association of video games with cognitive functions and modulating factors. Literatures were searched with search terms (e.g. genres of video games, cognitive training) on database and Google scholar.

Results

video games, of which purpose is players’ entertainment, were found to be positively associated with cognitive functions (e.g. attention, problem solving skills) despite some discrepancy between studies. However, the enhancement of cognitive functions through video gaming was limited to the task or performance requiring the same cognitive functions. Moreover, as several factors (e.g. age, gender) were identified to modulate cognitive enhancement, the individual difference in the association between video game playing and cognitive function was found.

Conclusion

Commercial video games are suggested to have the potential for cognitive function enhancement. As understanding the association between video gaming and cognitive function in a more balanced view is essential to evaluate the potential outcomes of commercial video games that more people reported to engage, this review contributes to provide more objective evidence for commercial video gaming.

The high-working load states induced by action real-time strategy gaming: An EEG power spectrum and network study

Action Real-time Strategy Gaming (ARSG) is a cognitively demanding task that requires attention, sensorimotor skills, high-level team coordination, and strategy-making abilities. Thus, ARSG can offer important, new insights into learning-related neural plasticity. However, little research has examined how the brain allocates cognitive resources in ARSG. By analyzing power spectrums and electroencephalograph (EEG) functional connectivity (FC) networks, this study compared multiple conditions (resting, movie watching, ARSG, and Life simulation gaming - LSG) in two experiments. Consistent with previous research, we found that brain waves appeared to be de-assimilated after activation. Furthermore, results showed that ARSG was associated with higher activation and workload as indicated by θ-waves, and required higher attention as reflected by β-waves. Furthermore, as participants began ARSG, the allocation of cognitive resource gradually prioritized the frontal area, which controls attention, decision-making, monitoring, and mnemonic processing, while participants also showed an enhanced ability to process information under the ARSG condition as indicated by network characteristics. These electrophysiological changes observed in ARSG were not found under LSG. Thus, this study applied both power spectrum and EEG FC networks analyses to ARSG research, revealing characteristics of brain waves in typical areas and how the brain gradually changes from low-working load states to high-working load states based on real-time EEG recordings.