Cognitive, behavioral, and autonomic correlates of mind wandering and perseverative cognition in major depression

Mind-wandering in daily life in depressed individuals: An experience sampling study

BACKGROUND

A diagnostic criterion for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is difficulty concentrating and increased distractibility. One form of distraction that occurs in everyday life is mind-wandering. The current study aims to test how individuals with MDD and healthy controls differ in their mind-wandering in everyday life.

METHODS

Adults diagnosed with MDD (n = 53) and healthy controls (n = 53) completed a week of experience sampling, with prompts administered up to eight times per day. At each prompt, participants reported the occurrence and characteristics of their mind-wandering. They also reported levels of momentary negative affect (NA), positive affect (PA), and rumination.

RESULTS

MDD participants reported mind-wandering almost twice as often as healthy control participants. Compared to healthy participants, MDD participants rated their mind-wandering as more negative, but did not differ in terms of temporal orientation. Higher NA and lower PA predicted mind-wandering in the MDD group but not healthy controls, even after controlling for rumination. Time-lagged analyses revealed that current mind-wandering predicted future levels of PA in MDD participants but not in healthy controls; in contrast, current NA and PA did not predict future mind-wandering.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations include our examination of specific forms of mind-wandering (i.e., we did not sample the full spectrum of this construct).

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals with MDD frequently report engaging in mind-wandering in everyday life, and this appears to be coupled with affect. Mind-wandering may have maladaptive effects in MDD and could serve as a target for intervention.

The body mirroring thought: The relationship between thought transitions and fluctuations in autonomic nervous activity mediated by interoception

Our thought states change without intention. This study verified that the transition of thought states varies with fluctuations in autonomic nervous activity, and that this effect is modulated by interoceptive accuracy. The participants completed the heartbeat counting task (HCT) and vigilance task. We assessed the participants' interoceptive accuracy based on their performance on the HCT. The vigilance task is a simple attention task, and during this task, we asked the participants to report the content and contemplation of their thoughts. Consequently, participants with accurate interoception were more likely to remain in a highly contemplative thought state when parasympathetic activity was suppressed. In contrast, the dominance of parasympathetic activity facilitated transitions to different thought states or experiences of less contemplative thought states in them. The results suggest that even subtle changes in bodily responses at rest can affect thought transitions in people with accurate interoception.

Resting vagally-mediated heart rate variability in the laboratory is associated with momentary negative affect and emotion regulation in daily life

Vagally-mediated heart rate variability (vmHRV) is a physiological index reflecting parasympathetic activity that has been linked to emotion regulation (ER) capacity. However, very limited research has examined associations of physiological indices of regulation such as vmHRV with emotional functioning in daily life. The few studies that exist have small samples sizes and typically focus on only a narrow aspect of ER or emotional functioning. In this study, we examined associations between vmHRV assessed in the laboratory and emotional/mental health functioning in daily life using a 7-day ecological momentary assessment design in 303 adult community participants. We hypothesized that higher resting vmHRV would be associated with higher positive affect (PA), lower negative affect (NA), less affective variability, greater well-being, fewer dysphoria symptoms, greater use of engagement ER strategies, and less use of avoidance ER strategies, as assessed in daily life. Results revealed that higher resting vmHRV in the laboratory (as indexed by both high frequency heart rate variability, HF-HRV, and the root mean of successive square deviations between heart beats, RMSSD) was significantly associated with less frequent use of avoidance ER strategies in daily life. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed, including the association of vmHRV with negatively valenced, rather than positively valenced, daily life experiences.

Digital Phenotyping of Geriatric Depression Using a Community-Based Digital Mental Health Monitoring Platform for Socially Vulnerable Older Adults and Their Community Caregivers: 6-Week Living Lab Single-Arm Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Despite the increasing need for digital services to support geriatric mental health, the development and implementation of digital mental health care systems for older adults have been hindered by a lack of studies involving socially vulnerable older adult users and their caregivers in natural living environments.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to determine whether digital sensing data on heart rate variability, sleep quality, and physical activity can predict same-day or next-day depressive symptoms among socially vulnerable older adults in their everyday living environments. In addition, this study tested the feasibility of a digital mental health monitoring platform designed to inform older adult users and their community caregivers about day-to-day changes in the health status of older adults.

METHODS

A single-arm, nonrandomized living lab pilot study was conducted with socially vulnerable older adults (n=25), their community caregivers (n=16), and a managerial social worker over a 6-week period during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Depressive symptoms were assessed daily using the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire via scripted verbal conversations with a mobile chatbot. Digital biomarkers for depression, including heart rate variability, sleep, and physical activity, were measured using a wearable sensor (Fitbit Sense) that was worn continuously, except during charging times. Daily individualized feedback, using traffic signal signs, on the health status of older adult users regarding stress, sleep, physical activity, and health emergency status was displayed on a mobile app for the users and on a web application for their community caregivers. Multilevel modeling was used to examine whether the digital biomarkers predicted same-day or next-day depressive symptoms. Study staff conducted pre- and postsurveys in person at the homes of older adult users to monitor changes in depressive symptoms, sleep quality, and system usability.

RESULTS

Among the 31 older adult participants, 25 provided data for the living lab and 24 provided data for the pre-post test analysis. The multilevel modeling results showed that increases in daily sleep fragmentation (P=.003) and sleep efficiency (P=.001) compared with one's average were associated with an increased risk of daily depressive symptoms in older adults. The pre-post test results indicated improvements in depressive symptoms (P=.048) and sleep quality (P=.02), but not in the system usability (P=.18).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that wearable sensors assessing sleep quality may be utilized to predict daily fluctuations in depressive symptoms among socially vulnerable older adults. The results also imply that receiving individualized health feedback and sharing it with community caregivers may help improve the mental health of older adults. However, additional in-person training may be necessary to enhance usability.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06270121; https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06270121.

Comparison of trait and state mind wandering among schizotypal, subclinically depressed, and control individuals

BACKGROUND

Mind wandering is a common phenomenon in daily life. However, the manifestations and cognitive correlates of mind wandering in different subclinical populations remain unclear. In this study, these aspects were examined in individuals with schizotypal traits and individuals with depressive symptoms, i.e., subclinical populations of patients with schizophrenia and depression.

METHODS

Forty-two individuals with schizotypal traits, 42 individuals with subclinical depression, and 42 controls were recruited to complete a mind wandering thought sampling task (state level) and a mind wandering questionnaire (trait level). Measures of rumination and cognitive functions (attention, inhibition, and working memory) were also completed by participants.

RESULTS

Both subclinical groups exhibited more state and trait mind wandering than did the control group. Furthermore, individuals with schizotypal traits demonstrated more trait mind wandering than individuals with subclinical depression. Rumination, sustained attention, and working memory were associated with mind wandering. In addition, mind wandering in individuals with subclinical depression can be accounted for by rumination or attention, while mind wandering in individuals with high schizotypal traits cannot be accounted for by rumination, attention, or working memory.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that individuals with high schizotypal traits and subclinical depression have different patterns of mind wandering and mechanisms. These findings have implications for understanding the unique profile of mind wandering in subclinical individuals.

Understanding mechanisms of depression prevention: study protocol of a randomized cross-over trial to investigate mechanisms of mindfulness and positive fantasizing as intervention techniques for reducing perseverative cognition in remitted depressed individuals

BACKGROUND

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is one of the most prevalent psychiatric disorders, and involves high relapse rates in which persistent negative thinking and rumination (i.e., perseverative cognition [PC]) play an important role. Positive fantasizing and mindfulness are common evidence-based psychological interventions that have been shown to effectively reduce PC and subsequent depressive relapse. How the interventions cause changes in PC over time, is unknown, but likely differ between the two. Whereas fantasizing may change the valence of thought content, mindfulness may operate through disengaging from automatic thought patterns. Comparing mechanisms of both interventions in a clinical sample and a non-clinical sample can give insight into the effectivity of interventions for different individuals. The current study aims to 1) test whether momentary psychological and psychophysiological indices of PC are differentially affected by positive fantasizing versus mindfulness-based interventions, 2) test whether the mechanisms of change by which fantasizing and mindfulness affect PC differ between remitted MDD versus never-depressed (ND) individuals, and 3) explore potential moderators of the main effects of the two interventions (i.e., what works for whom).

METHODS

In this cross-over trial of fantasizing versus mindfulness interventions, we will include 50 remitted MDD and 50 ND individuals. Before the start of the measurements, participants complete several individual characteristics. Daily-life diary measures of thoughts and feelings (using an experience sampling method), behavioural measures of spontaneous thoughts (using the Sustained Attention to Response Task), actigraphy, physiological measures (impedance cardiography, electrocardiography, and electroencephalogram), and measures of depressive mood (self-report questionnaires) are performed during the week before (pre-) the interventions and the week during (peri-) the interventions. After a wash-out of at least one month, pre- and peri-intervention measures for the second intervention are repeated.

DISCUSSION

This is the first study integrating self-reports, behavioural-, and physiological measures capturing dynamics at multiple time scales to examine the differential mechanisms of change in PC by psychological interventions in individuals remitted from multiple MDD episodes and ND individuals. Unravelling how therapeutic techniques affect PC in remitted individuals might generate insights that allows development of personalised targeted relapse prevention interventions.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT06145984, November 16, 2023.

The impact of mood-induction on maladaptive thinking in the vulnerability for depression

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Mind-wandering, and specifically the frequency and content of mind-wandering, plays an important role in the psychological well-being of individuals. Repetitive negative thinking has been associated with a high risk to develop and maintain Major Depressive Disorder. We here combined paradigms and techniques from cognitive sciences and experimental clinical psychology to study the transdiagnostic psychiatric phenomenon of repetitive negative thinking. This allowed us to investigate the adjustability of the content and characteristics of mind-wandering in individuals varying in their susceptibility to negative affect.

METHODS

Participants high (n = 42) or low (n = 40) on their vulnerability for negative affect and depression performed a Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) after a single session of positive fantasizing and a single session of stress induction in a cross-over design. Affective states were measured before and after the interventions.

RESULTS

After stress, negative affect increased, while after fantasizing both positive affect increased and negative affect decreased. Thoughts were less off-task, past-related and negative after fantasizing compared to after stress. Individuals more susceptible to negative affect showed more off-task thinking after stress than after fantasizing compared to individuals low on this.

LIMITATIONS

In this cross-over design, no baseline measurement was included, limiting comparison to 'uninduced' mind-wandering. Inclusion of self-related concerns in the SART could have led to negative priming.

CONCLUSIONS

Stress-induced negative thinking underlying vulnerability for depression could be partially countered by fantasizing in a non-clinical sample, which may inform the development of treatments for depression and other disorders characterized by maladaptive thinking.

Pretreatment pupillary reactivity is associated with outcome of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) treatment of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

BACKGROUND

Pre-treatment biomarkers for outcome of repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) treatment of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) have proven elusive. One promising family of biomarkers involves the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which is dysregulated in individuals with MDD.

METHODS

We examined the relationship between the pre-treatment pupillary light reflex (PLR) and rTMS outcome in 51 MDD patients. Outcome was measured as the percent change in the 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Self Rated (IDS-SR) score from baseline to treatment 30.

RESULTS

Patients showed significant improvement with rTMS treatment. There was a significant correlation between baseline pupillary Constriction Amplitude (CA) and clinical improvement over the treatment course (R = 0.41, p = 0.003).

LIMITATIONS

We examined a limited number of subjects who received heterogeneous treatment protocols. Almost all patients in the study received psychotropic medications concomitant with rTMS treatment.

CONCLUSION

PLR measured before treatment may be a predictive biomarker for clinical improvement from rTMS in subjects with MDD.

App-Based Mindfulness for Attenuation of Subjective and Physiological Stress Reactivity in a Population With Elevated Stress: Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Stress-related mental health disorders have steadily increased and contributed to a worldwide disease burden with up to 50% experiencing a stress-related mental health disorder worldwide. Data suggest that only approximately 20%-65% of individuals receive treatment. This gap in receiving treatment may be attributed to barriers such as limited treatment access, negative stigma surrounding mental health treatment, approachability (ie, not having a usual treatment plan or provider), affordability (ie, lack of insurance coverage and high treatment cost), and availability (ie, long waits for appointments) leaving those who need treatment without necessary care. To mitigate the limited access mental health treatment, there has been a rise in the application and study of digital mental health interventions. As such, there is an urgent need and opportunity for effective digital mental health interventions to alleviate stress symptoms, potentially reducing adverse outcomes of stress-related disorders.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined if app-based guided mindfulness could improve subjective levels of stress and influence physiological markers of stress reactivity in a population with elevated symptoms of stress.

METHODS

The study included 163 participants who had moderate to high perceived stress as assessed by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10). Participants were randomly allocated to 1 of 5 groups: a digital guided program designed to alleviate stress (Managing Stress), a digital mindfulness fundamentals course (Basics), digitally delivered breathing exercises, an active control intervention (Audiobook), and a Waitlist Control group. The 3 formats of mindfulness interventions (Managing Stress, Basics, and Breathing) all had a total duration of 300 minutes spanning 20-30 days. Primary outcome measures were perceived stress using the PSS-10, self-reported sleep quality using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, and trait mindfulness using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale. To probe the effects of physiological stress, an acute stress manipulation task was included, specifically the cold pressor task (CPT). Heart rate variability was collected before, during, and after exposure to the CPT and used as a measure of physiological stress.

RESULTS

The results showed that PSS-10 and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index scores for the Managing Stress (all P<.001) and Basics (all P≤.002) groups were significantly reduced between preintervention and postintervention periods, while no significant differences were reported for the other groups. No significant differences among groups were reported for Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (P=.13). The physiological results revealed that the Managing Stress (P<.001) and Basics (P=.01) groups displayed reduced physiological stress reactivity between the preintervention and postintervention periods on the CPT. There were no significant differences reported for the other groups.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate efficacy of app-based mindfulness in a population with moderate to high stress on improving self-reported stress, sleep quality, and physiological measures of stress during an acute stress manipulation task.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05832632; https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05832632.

Autonomic complexity dynamically indexes affect regulation in everyday life

Affect regulation often is disrupted in depression. Understanding biomarkers of affect regulation in ecologically valid contexts is critical for identifying moments when interventions can be delivered to improve regulation and may have utility for identifying which individuals are vulnerable to psychopathology. Autonomic complexity, which includes linear and nonlinear indices of heart rate variability, has been proposed as a novel marker of neurovisceral integration. However, it is not clear how autonomic complexity tracks with regulation in everyday life, and whether low complexity serves as a marker of related psychopathology. To measure regulation phenotypes with diminished influence of current symptoms, 37 young adults with remitted major depressive disorder (rMDD) and 28 healthy comparisons (HCs) completed ambulatory assessments of autonomic complexity and affect regulation across one week in everyday life. Multilevel models indicated that in HCs, but not rMDD, autonomic complexity fluctuated in response to regulation cues, increasing in response to reappraisal and distraction and decreasing in response to negative affect. Higher complexity across the week predicted greater everyday regulation success, whereas greater variability of complexity predicted lower (and less variable) negative affect, rumination, and mind-wandering. Results suggest that ambulatory assessment of autonomic complexity can passively index dynamic aspects of real-world affect and regulation, and that dynamic physiological reactivity to regulation is restricted in rMDD. These results demonstrate how intensive sampling of dynamic, nonlinear regulatory processes can advance our understanding of potential mechanisms underlying psychopathology. Such measurements might inform how to test interventions to enhance neurovisceral complexity and affect regulation success in real time. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Being more satisfied with romantic relationship status is associated with increased mental wellbeing in people with experience of psychosis

Aims

Romantic relationships represent one of the most salient sources of social support. In general population studies, they are associated with both physical and psychological benefits. Research suggests that for people with psychosis, romantic relationships may also have a positive impact on a range of outcomes, but the reasons for these associations are still unclear. This study aims to investigate whether satisfaction with romantic relationships status is associated with better wellbeing outcomes in people with experience of psychosis and explore three possible psychological mediators of this relationship.

Methods

Participants who had previously sought support for psychosis (n = 190) completed an online survey including measures of relationship status satisfaction (the Satisfaction with Relationship Scale) as well as measures of psychotic symptoms (the CAPE-42), general well-being (Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale) and several psychological variables relevant to the pathway between romantic relationships and well-being outcomes, namely loneliness, internalised stigma, self-esteem and attachment.

Results

Fearful attachment and partner criticism were negatively associated with relationship status satisfaction. Having a partner was positively associated with relationship status satisfaction. Higher levels of relationship status satisfaction were associated with lower psychotic symptoms and higher mental wellbeing. This relationship was mediated by loneliness, internalised stigma, and self-esteem.

Conclusion

Mental health services should be mindful of the associations between romantic relationship satisfaction and wellbeing. Service users with a fearful attachment style may particularly benefit from support in this area.

Spanish and cross-cultural validation of the mind excessively wandering scale

Introduction

Over the last decade, excessive spontaneous mind wandering (MW) has been consistently associated with emotional disorders. The main aims of the present study were (1) to re-examine the factor structure of the Mind Excessively Wandering Scale (MEWS); (2) to validate the Spanish version of the MEWS; and (3) to conduct a cross-cultural validation of the MEWS in Spanish and UK samples.

Methods

A forward/backward translation to Spanish was conducted. Data of 391 Spanish and 713 British non-clinical individuals were analysed.

Results

A revised 10-item version of the MEWS (MEWS-v2.0) demonstrated to be a valid instrument to assess MW. A 2-correlated factor structure properly captured the MEWS-v2.0 variance, accounting for two specific but interrelated dimensions (Uncontrolled thoughts and Mental Overactivity).

Discussion

The Spanish MEWS-v2.0 showed adequate internal consistency and construct validity, as well as appropriate convergent/divergent validity. Cross-cultural analyses showed that MEWS-v2.0 captured the same construct in both UK and Spanish samples. In conclusion, both Spanish and English MEWS-v2.0 demonstrated to be reliable measures to capture spontaneous MW phenomenon in non-clinical adult populations.

Comparing resting state and task-based EEG using machine learning to predict vulnerability to depression in a non-clinical population

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) affects a large portion of the population and levies a huge societal burden. It has serious consequences like decreased productivity and reduced quality of life, hence there is considerable interest in understanding and predicting it. As it is a mental disorder, neural measures like EEG are used to study and understand its underlying mechanisms. However most of these studies have either explored resting state EEG (rs-EEG) data or task-based EEG data but not both, we seek to compare their respective efficacy. We work with data from non-clinically depressed individuals who score higher and lower on the depression scale and hence are more and less vulnerable to depression, respectively. Forty participants volunteered for the study. Questionnaires and EEG data were collected from participants. We found that people who are more vulnerable to depression had on average increased EEG amplitude in the left frontal channel, and decreased amplitude in the right frontal and occipital channels for raw data (rs-EEG). Task-based EEG data from a sustained attention to response task used to measure spontaneous thinking, an increased EEG amplitude in the central part of the brain for individuals with low vulnerability and an increased EEG amplitude in right temporal, occipital and parietal regions in individuals more vulnerable to depression were found. In an attempt to predict vulnerability (high/low) to depression, we found that a Long Short Term Memory model gave the maximum accuracy of 91.42% in delta wave for task-based data whereas 1D-Convolution neural network gave the maximum accuracy of 98.06% corresponding to raw rs-EEG data. Hence if one has to look at the primary question of which data will be good for predicting vulnerability to depression, rs-EEG seems to be better than task-based EEG data. However, if mechanisms driving depression like rumination or stickiness are to be understood, task-based data may be more effective. Furthermore, as there is no consensus as to which biomarker of rs-EEG is more effective in the detection of MDD, we also experimented with evolutionary algorithms to find the most informative subset of these biomarkers. Higuchi fractal dimension, phase lag index, correlation and coherence features were also found to be the most important features for predicting vulnerability to depression using rs-EEG. These findings bring up new possibilities for EEG-based machine/deep learning diagnostics in the future.

Dimensions of inattention: Cognitive, behavioral, and affective consequences

Inattention to one's on-going task leads to well-documented cognitive, behavioral, and physiological consequences. At the same time, the reliable association between mind-wandering and negative mood has suggested that there are affective consequences to task inattention as well. We examined this potential relationship between inattention and mood in the following study. Six hundred and fifty-five participants completed self-report questionnaires related to inattentive thinking (i.e., attentional lapses, daydreaming, mindfulness, rumination, reflection, worry, postevent processing, inattentiveness, and counterfactual thinking), a questionnaire about depressive symptoms, and a questionnaire about anxiety symptoms. First, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted to identify potential underlying constructs of types of inattentive thinking. Using ordinary least squares extraction and Oblimin rotation, a three-factor model demonstrated suitable fit, broadly representing mind-wandering/inattentive consequences, repetitive negative thinking, and reflective/introspective thinking. Second, after eliminating measures that did not strongly load on any factor, structural equation modeling was conducted and found that the relationship between mind-wandering and depression was partially explained by repetitive negative thinking, whereas the relationship between mind-wandering and anxiety was fully explained by repetitive negative thinking. The present findings suggest that understanding how inattentive thoughts are interrelated not only influences mood and affect but also reveals important considerations of intentionality, executive functioning, and qualitative styles of these thoughts.

Negative mood mind wandering and unsafe driving in young male drivers

OBJECTIVE

Road traffic crash fatalities disproportionately affect young male drivers. Driver distraction is a leading contributor to crashes. Mind wandering (MW) is a prevalent form of driver distraction that is linked to certain unsafe driving behaviours that are associated with increased crash risk (e.g., faster driving). Negative mood can lead to MW, and thus may represent a causal pathway to MW-related unsafe driving. This preliminary pre-post (T1, T2), randomized, controlled, single-blinded experiment tested whether negative mood, compared to neutral mood, increases MW while driving as well as unsafe driving and emotional arousal during MW. It also tested the moderating contribution of trait rumination and inhibitory control to this proposed causal pathway.

METHODS

Forty healthy male drivers aged 20 to 24 were randomly allocated to a negative or neutral mood manipulation involving deception. Individual differences in trait rumination and inhibitory control were measured at T1. At T1 and T2, participants drove in a driving simulator measuring driving speed, headway distance, steering behaviour, and overtaking. Heart rate and thought probes during simulation measured emotional arousal and MW, respectively.

RESULTS

Negative mood exposure led to more MW while driving (Odds Ratio = 1.79, p = .022). Trait rumination positively moderated the relationship between negative mood and MW (Odds Ratio = 2.11, p = .002). Negative versus neutral mood exposure led to increases in headway variability (Cohen's d = 1.46, p = .026) and steering reversals (Rate Ratio = 1.33, p = .032) during MW relative to focused driving. Between-group differences in emotional arousal were not significant.

CONCLUSION

Results support a causal pathway from negative mood to unsafe driving via MW, including the moderating contribution of trait rumination. If replicated, these preliminary findings may inform the development of interventions targeting this potential crash-risk pathway in vulnerable young driver subgroups.

Virtual Reality and Exercise Training Enhance Brain, Cognitive, and Physical Health in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment

We investigated the effectiveness of virtual-reality-based cognitive training (VRCT) and exercise on the brain, cognitive, physical and activity of older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI).

METHODS

This study included 99 participants (70.8 ± 5.4) with MCI in the VRCT, exercise, and control groups. The VRCT consisted of a series of games targeting different brain functions such as executive function, memory, and attention. Twenty-four sessions of VRCT (three days/week) were performed, and each session was 100 min long. Exercise intervention consisted of aerobic and resistance trainings performed in 24 sessions for 60 min (2 times/week for 12 weeks). Global cognitive function was measured using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) test. Resting-state electroencephalography (EEG) of the neural oscillatory activity in different frequency bands was performed. Physical function was measured using handgrip strength (HGS) and gait speed.

RESULTS

After the intervention period, VRCT significantly improved the MMSE scores (p < 0.05), and the exercise group had significantly improved HGS and MMSE scores (p < 0.05) compared to baseline. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) of resting-state EEG showed a decreased theta/beta power ratio (TBR) (p < 0.05) in the central region of the brain in the exercise group compared to the control group. Although not statistically significant, the VRCT group also showed a decreased TBR compared to the control group. The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test showed a significant decrease in theta band power in the VRCT group compared to the exercise group and a decrease in delta/alpha ratio in the exercise group compared to the VRCT group.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that VRCT and exercise training enhances brain, cognitive, and physical health in older adults with MCI. Further studies with a larger population sample to identify the effect of VRCT in combination with exercise training are required to yield peak benefits for patients with MCI.

Early indicators of vulnerability to depression: The role of rumination and heart rate variability

BACKGROUND

Despite the evidence of increased levels of rumination and reduced heart rate variability (HRV) in depression, whether these measures can be considered early indicators of vulnerability to depression has yet to be investigated. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate both levels of rumination and resting HRV in individuals with familial risk for depression that is the most reliable risk factor for the disorder.

METHODS

Rumination and vagally-mediated HRV were assessed using the Ruminative Response Scale and a smartphone-based photoelectric volumetric pulse wave assay, respectively, in 25 individuals who had family history of depression (but did not report current depressive symptoms), 15 individuals who reported depressive symptoms (but had no family history of depression), and 25 controls (without depressive symptoms and family history of depression).

RESULTS

Individuals with depressive symptoms and those with a family history of depression were characterized by higher levels of rumination and lower cardiac vagal control than controls.

LIMITATIONS

Given the small sample size, this study should be used to design larger confirmatory studies; the cross-sectional nature of the study does not allow discussing the results in terms of cause-effect relationships.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested that individuals at risk of developing depression, also in absence of depressive symptoms, are defined by defective self-regulation capacity that may lead to future depression episodes. Increased ruminative thoughts and reduced HRV may represent early indicators of vulnerability to depression. Effective prevention programs designed to reduce rumination and/or increase HRV may reduce the risk of developing a full-blown depressive episode.

Depressive rumination and heart rate variability: A pilot study on the effect of biofeedback on rumination and its physiological concomitants

Objective

Recent studies suggest that lower resting heart rate variability (HRV) is associated with elevated vulnerability to depressive rumination. In this study, we tested whether increases in HRV after HRV-biofeedback training are accompanied by reductions in rumination levels.

Materials and methods

Sixteen patients suffering from depression completed a 6-week HRV-biofeedback training and fourteen patients completed a control condition in which there was no intervention (waitlist). The training included five sessions per week at home using a smartphone application and an ECG belt. Depressive symptoms and autonomic function at rest and during induced rumination were assessed before and after each of the two conditions. We used a well-established rumination induction task to provoke a state of pervasive rumination while recording various physiological signals simultaneously. Changes in HRV, respiration rate, skin conductance, and pupil diameter were compared between conditions and time points.

Results

A significant correlation was found between resting HRV and rumination levels, both assessed at the first laboratory session (r = -0.43, p < 0.05). Induction of rumination led to an acceleration of heart rate and skin conductance increases. After biofeedback training, resting vagal HRV was increased (p < 0.01) and self-ratings of state anxiety (p < 0.05), rumination (p < 0.05), perceived stress (p < 0.05), and depressive symptoms (QIDS, BDI; both p < 0.05) were decreased. In the control condition, there were no changes in autonomic indices or depressive symptomatology. A significant interaction effect group x time on HRV was observed.

Conclusion

Our results indicate that a smartphone-based HRV-biofeedback intervention can be applied to improve cardiovagal function and to reduce depressive symptoms including self-rated rumination tendencies.

The steady state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) tracks "sticky" thinking, but not more general mind-wandering

For a large proportion of our daily lives, spontaneously occurring thoughts tend to disengage our minds from goal-directed thinking. Previous studies showed that EEG features such as the P3 and alpha oscillations can predict mind-wandering to some extent, but only with accuracies of around 60%. A potential candidate for improving prediction accuracy is the Steady-State Visual Evoked Potential (SSVEP), which is used frequently in single-trial contexts such as brain-computer interfaces as a marker of the direction of attention. In this study, we modified the sustained attention to response task (SART) that is usually employed to measure spontaneous thought to incorporate the SSVEP elicited by a 12.5-Hz flicker. We then examined whether the SSVEP could track and allow for the prediction of the stickiness and task-relatedness dimensions of spontaneous thought. Our results show that the SSVEP evoked by flickering words was able to distinguish between more and less sticky thinking but not between whether a participant was on- or off-task. This suggests that the SSVEP is able to track spontaneous thinking when it is strongly disengaged from the task (as in the sticky form of off-task thinking) but not off-task thought in general. Future research should determine the exact dimensions of spontaneous thought to which the SSVEP is most sensitive.

Sleep well, mind wander less: A systematic review of the relationship between sleep outcomes and spontaneous cognition

Despite an upsurge of research on spontaneous cognition, little is known about its associations with sleep-related outcomes. This systematic review, following PRISMA guidelines, examined the relationship between sleep and spontaneous thoughts, across different definitions and measurements of sleep outcomes and spontaneous cognition, and a diversity of methodologies. Twenty-one articles with survey and/or experimental designs were identified. Self-reported disturbed sleep-comprising poor sleep quality, more insomnia symptoms, more daytime sleepiness and a tendency towards eveningness-and experimentally induced sleep deprivation were associated with a tendency to engage in disruptive mind wandering and daydreaming, but not positive-constructive daydreaming. Findings regarding circadian fluctuation in spontaneous thoughts were mixed and inconclusive. This systematic review bridges the gap between the sleep and spontaneous cognition research by contributing to the understanding of potential psychological and cognitive mechanisms of spontaneous cognition, as well as by elucidating the emotional and cognitive consequences of disturbed sleep.

Modulation of Mind Wandering Using Monaural Beat Stimulation in Subjects With High Trait-Level Mind Wandering

Mind wandering (MW) refers to a state when attention shifts from the task at hand or current situation toward thoughts, feelings, and imaginations. This state is often accompanied by a decline in mood, and patients suffering from major depression exhibit more perseverative MW. Hence, although the directionality of the relationship between mood and MW is still under investigation, it may be useful to explore possible avenues to reduce MW. In an earlier pilot study, we investigated MW during auditory beat stimulation in healthy subjects using thought-probes during a sustained attention to response task (SART). We found evidence for reduced MW during monaural 5 Hz beats compared to silence, sine tones, and binaural 5 Hz beats. Moreover, the data tentatively suggested that this reduction was particularly pronounced in subjects with high levels of MW during silence. In the current study, we therefore asked whether MW can be reduced by monaural theta beats in subjects with high trait-levels of MW, as indicated by an online MW questionnaire. Preselected subjects performed a SART task with thought-probes assessing the propensity to mind wander, meta-awareness, and the temporal orientation of MW. Stimulation conditions comprised monaural theta beats, as well as silence (headphones on), and sine tones as control conditions. Our main hypothesis stating that the propensity to mind wander during monaural theta beats is reduced compared to both control conditions was only partly confirmed. Indeed, MW was significantly diminished during exposure to the theta beats compared to sine tones. However, reduced MW during theta beats versus silence was only observed in a subgroup using stricter inclusion criteria. Considering possible reasons for this outcome, our data suggest that the preselection procedure was suboptimal and that beat effects are modulated by the individual responses to auditory stimulation in general.

Low-dose LSD and the stream of thought: Increased Discontinuity of Mind, Deep Thoughts and abstract flow

RATIONALE

Stream of thought describes the nature of the mind when it is freely roaming, a mental state that is continuous and highly dynamic as in mind-wandering or free association. Classic serotonergic psychedelics are known to profoundly impact perception, cognition and language, yet their influence on the stream of thought remains largely unexplored.

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the effects of LSD on the stream of thought.

METHODS

In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study, 24 healthy participants received 50 μg lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) or inactive placebo. Mind-wandering was measured by the Amsterdam Resting State Questionnaire (ARSQ), free association by the Forward Flow Task (FFT) for three seed word types (animals, objects, abstract words). ARSQ and FFT were assessed at +0 h, +2 h, +4 h, +6 h, +8 h and +24 h after drug administration, respectively.

RESULTS

LSD, compared to placebo, induced different facets of mind-wandering we conceptualized as "chaos" (Discontinuity of Mind, decreased Sleepiness, Planning, Thoughts under Control, Thoughts about Work and Thoughts about Past), "meaning" (Deep Thoughts, Not Sharing Thoughts) and "sensation" (Thoughts about Odours, Thoughts about Sounds). LSD increased the FFT for abstract words reflecting an "abstract flow" under free association. Overall, chaos was strongest pronounced (+2 h to +6 h), followed by meaning (+2 h to +4 h), sensation (+2 h) and abstract flow (+4 h).

CONCLUSIONS

LSD affects the stream of thought within several levels (active, passive), facets (chaos, meaning, sensation, abstractness) and time points (from +2 h to +6 h). Increased chaos, meaning and abstract flow at +4 h indicate the utility of a late therapeutic window in psycholytic therapy.

Higher Resting Cardiovagal Activity Predicts Larger Decrease of Depressive Symptoms in Inpatients Treated for Stress-Related Depression

Abstract. Depression is one of the most prevalent mental disorders, with treatment outcomes generally being unsatisfactory. The identification of outcome predictors could contribute to improving diagnosis, treatment, and outcome. Heart rate variability (HRV), an index of cardiovagal activity, has been proposed as a potential correlate of depression as well as a predictor of treatment effectiveness. The aim of the present study was to examine if HRV at baseline could predict the outcome of inpatient treatment for stress-related depressive disorder (SRDD). Depressive symptoms of n = 57 inpatients with an SRDD, who were treated in a specialized burnout ward, were assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) at the beginning, the end of treatment, and at 3-month follow-up. HRV (i.e., RMSSD, the root mean square of successive RR interval differences) was determined from a five-minute measurement in the supine position. RMSSD was not significantly associated with the BDI score at the beginning, end, and follow-up. Higher RMSSD was revealed to be a significant predictor of a stronger decrease in depressive severity from the beginning to the end of the treatment. Thereby, the regression model explained 7.6% of the total variance in the BDI decrease. The results revealed initial HRV to predict a larger decrease in depressive severity. Therefore, resting HRV represents a physiological resource and index of successful neurovisceral interaction, which supports inpatients in benefitting from specialized treatment.

The relationship between schizotypal personality features and mind wandering among college students during COVID-19 pandemic: A moderator of depression

INTRODUCTION

Although the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on people's mental health has been well documented in many studies, the schizotypal personality features in the general population have not received sufficient attention.

METHODS

Study 1 is a longitudinal study tracking changes in schizotypal personality features among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of 153 Chinese college students were assessed using the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire. Study 2 explored the relationship between schizotypal personality features, mind wandering, and depression. A total of 557 college students completed the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Mind-Wandering Questionnaire during the COVID-19 pandemic.

RESULTS

Study 1 results showed that the scores from later stages in the pandemic were significantly higher than those from the initial stages on each dimension of schizotypal personality, which means that the schizotypal personality features became more obvious during the COVID-19 pandemic. Study 2 results showed that there was a positive correlation between schizotypal personality features, depression, and mind wandering.

DISCUSSION

Depression played a moderating role in the relationship between schizotypal personality features and mind wandering. The schizotypal personality features of college students increase during COVID-19; it has a positive relationship with mind wandering; depression moderates the relationship. We discussed these findings and provided some suggestions about future research.

Slow and Powerless Thought Dynamic Relates to Brooding in Unipolar and Bipolar Depression

INTRODUCTION

Depression can be characterized by rumination that is featured by spontaneity and perseveration of internally oriented thoughts. At the same time, depressed subjects complain about abnormal slowness and lack of power/energy in their thoughts, suggesting abnormal "thought dynamics." The relationship between rumination and thought dynamics in depression remains unclear, though.

METHOD

We investigated thought dynamics and rumination in healthy control, major depressive disorder (MDD), and depressed bipolar disorder (BD) subjects. The dynamics in the spontaneous shift between internally and externally oriented thoughts were measured by a novel method of continuous experience sampling whose time series was subjected to power and frequency analyses. Subjects filled out the Beck Depression Inventory-II and Ruminative Response Scale questionnaires to evaluate current depressive symptoms and ruminative responses to negative affect. The methods used to analyze data included χ2, Pearson correlation, ANOVA, and partial correlation.

RESULTS

Our main findings are: (i) increased number and longer duration of internally oriented thought contents in MDD and BD; (ii) reduced thought dynamics with slower frequency (calculated in Hz) and decreased power (power spectral density) in shifting between internally and externally oriented thoughts, especially in MDD and, less strongly, in BD subjects; and (iii) power spectral density as a dimension of thought dynamics is related to brooding rumination with depression severity explaining high degrees of their variance.

CONCLUSION

Our results show slow frequency and low power in the internal-external thought dynamic of acute MDD and depressed BD. Together with its close relation to depression severity and rumination, our findings highlight the key importance of abnormal dynamics on the cognitive level of depression.

Mind wandering and depression: A status report

While many clinical studies and overviews on the contribution of rumination to depression exist, relatively little information regarding the role of mind wandering (MW) in general is available. Therefore, it remains an open question whether patterns of MW are altered in depression and, if so, how these alterations are related to rumination. Here, we review and discuss studies investigating MW in cohorts, showing either a clinically significant depression or with clinically significant disorders accompanied by depressive symptoms. These studies yield first tentative insights into major issues. However, further investigations are required, specifically studies which: i) compare patients with a primary diagnosis of major depression with healthy and appropriately matched controls, ii) implement measures of both MW and rumination, iii) are based on experience sampling (in combination with other key approaches), iv) compare experience sampling during daily life, resting state and attentional tasks, v) explore possible biases in the assessment of MW, vi) acquire data not only related to the propensity and contents of MW, but also regarding meta-awareness and intentionality.

The interplay of self-critical rumination and resting heart rate variability on subjective well-being and somatic symptom distress: A prospective study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this prospective study was to investigate the association of self-critical rumination, autonomic function (indexed by a time domain metric of resting heart rate variability-RMSSD), subjective well-being and somatic symptom distress.

METHOD

84 healthy participants (73 females; mean age = 23.56, SD = 3.35 years) completed the Somatic Symptom Severity Scale of the Patient Health Questionnaire and Mental Health Continuum Short Form at two timepoints (at baseline and six months later). Resting heart rate variability (HRV) was assessed at baseline, along with content specific rumination using the Self-Critical Rumination Scale. Four moderation analyses were performed to test these associations.

RESULTS

The interaction between resting HRV and self-critical rumination significantly explained somatic symptom distress at baseline. For those participants who had high resting HRV, somatic symptom distress was basically independent from the level of self-critical rumination. At the same time, lower resting HRV was associated with higher somatic symptom distress, especially in the presence of more ruminative thoughts. Prospectively, however, the interaction between rumination and resting HRV was not a significant predictor of somatic symptom distress. The association between resting HRV and self-critical rumination did not explain the variance on subjective well-being, but subjective well-being was negatively related to self-critical rumination.

CONCLUSION

Our findings potentially indicate that self-critical rumination could have a long-term negative impact on psychological functioning, even in a non-clinical sample, and highlight that a lower level of parasympathetic activation, assessed with RMSSD, might be an important factor in the relationship of self-critical rumination and somatic symptom distress.

Mindfulness Effects on Mind Wandering and Autonomic Balance

The natural tendency of the mind to wander (i.e., mind wandering), is often connected to negative thoughts and emotional states. On the other hand, mindfulness (i.e., the ability to focus one's attention on the present moment in a non-judgmental way) has acquired a growing interest in recent years given its beneficial role in improving awareness and self-regulation. Starting from previous evidence, this study aims to clarify the psychological, physiological, and affective impact of a mindfulness exercise on mind wandering. Twenty-eight non-expert female meditators were recruited for this study. Heart rate variability (HRV), state mindfulness, mind wandering manifestations, and affective states, were recorded during a baseline condition, a mindfulness breathing observation exercise, and a final rest condition. Subjects reported significant decreases in mind wandering comparing baseline and mindfulness. Changes in mind wandering were mirrored by changes in HRV, with higher HRV during the breathing observation exercise. Significant associations were found between scores of mindfulness, mind wandering, and affective states measured during the task. Our findings confirmed the role of mindfulness in reducing mind wandering and increasing HRV. Results are discussed considering mindfulness associations with self-regulation and well-being.

Effects of Three Genres of Focus Music on Heart Rate Variability and Sustained Attention

Previous research has demonstrated restorative effects of music, showing that exposure to music yields mental health benefits that include improvement in stress management. However, it remains unclear whether the benefits of “on the spot” music interventions extend to cognitive performance. The present study explored whether music can be applied as a low-cost, non-invasive “on the spot” intervention to improve cognitive performance and physiological effects. Specifically, studies has yet to examine whether the effects of different genres of focus music extend beyond stress management to include cognitive performance and physiological effects. To address this gap in the literature, the current study recruited 120 healthy adults in a fully randomized procedure involving three experimental groups of participants and a control group. Each experimental group was exposed to one specific genre of focus music compared to a no-music control group. In a between-group design, the study exposed three separate groups to jazz music, piano music, and lo-fi music respectively. The fourth group was a no-music control group. The study employed a 3-day experimental procedure and a follow-up procedure in which participants completed two attention monitoring tasks. Participants completed focus music interventions with a duration of 15 and 45 min. The follow-up procedure aimed to experimentally induce music familiarity and probe its effect on cognitive performance. To assess cardiovascular effects, heart rate variability (HRV) data was collected during the music intervention period and during a baseline period. Results showed performance differences across the three active music groups on the sustained attention to response task (SART) compared to the no-music control group. Furthermore, the study showed a physiological effect in the direction of increased parasympathetic activity indexed as an increased HRV response in the three active music groups compared to the no-music control group, adding to convergent lines of evidence suggesting that music can enhance parasympathetic activity and cognitive performance. In addition, the study found that music familiarity (relative to music unfamiliarity) influenced cognitive performance in the direction of faster reaction times (RTs) during the music intervention period in which participants were exposed to the attentional network task (ANT) and an increase in the physiological response in the familiar relative to the unfamiliar music condition. In summary, the study found evidence of a pronounced effect of three types of focus music on both cognitive performance and the underlying physiological response. Thus, focus music holds promise as an evidence-based intervention offering mental health benefits through physiological improvements and enhancement of cognitive processing.

Perseverative Cognition in the Positive Valence Systems: An Experimental and Ecological Investigation

Perseverative cognition (PC) is a transdiagnostic risk factor that characterizes both hypo-motivational (e.g., depression) and hyper-motivational (e.g., addiction) disorders; however, it has been almost exclusively studied within the context of the negative valence systems. The present study aimed to fill this gap by combining laboratory-based, computational and ecological assessments. Healthy individuals performed the Probabilistic Reward Task (PRT) before and after the induction of PC or a waiting period. Computational modeling was applied to dissociate the effects of PC on reward sensitivity and learning rate. Afterwards, participants underwent a one-week ecological momentary assessment of daily PC occurrence, as well as anticipatory and consummatory reward-related behavior. Induction of PC led to increased response bias on the PRT compared to waiting, likely due to an increase in learning rate but not in reward sensitivity, as suggested by computational modeling. In daily-life, PC increased the discrepancy between expected and obtained rewards (i.e., prediction error). Current converging experimental and ecological evidence suggests that PC is associated with abnormalities in the functionality of positive valence systems. Given the role of PC in the prediction, maintenance, and recurrence of psychopathology, it would be clinically valuable to extend research on this topic beyond the negative valence systems.

Reflecting rehabilitation nursing care: Theory of Recognition crossed by the Principle of Hope

OBJECTIVE

The study seeks to reflect on rehabilitation nursing care, from the perspective of the Theory of Recognition and the Principle of Hope.

STATE OF ART

Reflection study, based on Axel Honneth's Theory of Recognition crossed by Ernst Bloch's Principle of Hope, aiming to elucidate the theoretical and methodological potential of these references for future research in health, nursing and rehabilitation nursing. Rehabilitation nursing care is permeated by theoretical and philosophical influences little described in the literature. The study proposes a way of thinking and exercising care with the perspective of building rehabilitation nursing care, in which the nurse excels in trust, respect and mutual esteem, playing the role of agent of hopeful and realistic expectations.

CONCLUSION

The study showed the main characteristics of each philosophical theoretical axis, permeating, separately, the relevant definitions to understand its implications in the concrete reality of living.

Heart rate variability is enhanced during mindfulness practice: A randomized controlled trial involving a 10-day online-based mindfulness intervention

OBJECTIVES

The goal of the present study was to probe the effects of mindfulness practice in a naturalistic setting as opposed to a lab-based environment in the presence of continuous heart rate variability (HRV) measurements. The specific experimental goals were to examine the effects of a brief 10-day online-based mindfulness intervention on both chronic and acute HRV responses.

METHOD

We conducted a fully randomized 10-day longitudinal trial of mindfulness practice, explicitly controlling for practice effects with an active-control group (music listening) and a non-intervention control group. To assess chronic cardiovascular effects, we asked participants in the 3 groups to complete 2-day HRV pre- and post-intervention measurement sessions. Using this experimental setup enabled us to address training effects arising from mindfulness practice to assess physiological impact on daytime as well as nighttime (i.e. assessing sleep quality) on the underlying HRV response. To assess acute cardiovascular effects, we measured HRV in the 2 active intervention groups during each of the 10 daily mindfulness or music sessions. This allowed us to track the development of purported training effects arising from mindfulness practice relative to the active-control intervention in terms of changes in the HRV slope over the 10-day time-course.

RESULTS

Firstly, for the acute phase we found increased HRV during the daily practice sessions in both the mindfulness and active-control group indicating that both interventions were effective in decreasing acute physiological stress. Secondly, for the chronic phase we found increased HRV in both the day- and nighttime indicating increased sleep quality, specifically in the mindfulness group.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest causal effects in both chronic and acute phases of mindfulness practice in formerly naïve subjects and provides support for the argument that brief online-based mindfulness interventions exert positive impact on HRV.

The interplay between executive control, behavioural variability and mind wandering: Insights from a high-definition transcranial direct-current stimulation study

While the involvement of executive processes in mind wandering is largely undebated, their exact relationship is subject to an ongoing debate and rarely studied dynamically within-subject. Several brain-stimulation studies using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) have attempted to modulate mind-wandering propensity by stimulating the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) which is an important hub in the prefrontal control network. In a series of three studies testing a total of N = 100 participants, we develop a novel task that allows to study the dynamic interplay of mind wandering, behavioural varibility and the flexible recruitment of executive resources as indexed by the randomness (entropy) of movement sequences generated by our participants. We consistently find that behavioural variability is increased and randomness is decreased during periods of mind wandering. Interestingly, we also find that behavioural variability interacts with the entropy-MW effect, opening up the possibility to detect distinct states of off-focus cognition. When applying a high-definition transcranial direct-current stimulation (HD-tDCS) montage to the left DLPFC, we find that propensity to mind wander is reduced relative to a group receiving sham stimulation.

Off-task thinking among adults with and without social anxiety disorder: an ecological momentary assessment study

Although task-unrelated thinking (often conceptualised as "mind-wandering") has been increasingly investigated in recent years, the content and correlates of everyday off-task thought in clinical disorders, particularly anxiety disorders, remain poorly understood. We aimed to address this gap by using ecological momentary assessment to assess off-task and on-task thoughts in adults with social anxiety disorder (SAD) and demographically matched controls. Findings showed that individuals with SAD more frequently engaged in internally oriented off-task thinking than healthy controls, but not externally oriented off-task thinking. Compared to thoughts focused on the task at hand, adults with SAD rated their internal off-task thoughts as less controllable, more self-focused, and as associated with worse mood than controls. However, when the SAD group was focused on the task at hand, group differences disappeared. Daily findings were paralleled by higher scores in SAD on a trait measure of unintentional, but not intentional, mind-wandering. In sum, the content and mood correlate of internally oriented off-task thoughts depended on the presence of clinical anxiety. In addition, focusing on the task at hand normalised thought content and mood in SAD, highlighting a window for intervention.

The autonomic correlates of dysphoric rumination and post-rumination savoring

Trait dysphoric rumination is a transdiagnostic factor associated with depression and anxiety that has also been linked with blunted respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), an index of reduced emotion regulation capacity. However, the autonomic correlates of state dysphoric rumination remain unclear. We examined the physiological correlates of state dysphoric rumination and the potential repairing effects of savoring on autonomic functioning. To provide a comprehensive assessment of autonomic correlates, we examined changes in parasympathetic (RSA) and sympathetic (cardiac pre-ejection period, PEP; and electrodermal activity, EDA) arousal independently, as well as autonomic coordination among indices. Eighty-two women (ages 18-25) completed laboratory physiological assessments, including rumination and savoring tasks, and self-report measures of trait rumination. Dysphoric rumination was associated with sympathetic activation (i.e., decreases in PEP, increases in EDA), and subsequent savoring following a recovery period also corresponded with decreases in PEP. Trait rumination did not predict autonomic changes during state rumination. However, higher trait rumination was associated with greater sympathetic coordination (PEP-EDA correspondence) during savoring. In summary, dysphoric rumination co-occurred with sympathetic activation, and subsequent savoring successfully recruited sympathetic activity (PEP) redirected on positive moods and events. Results also emphasize the utility of examining sympathetic and parasympathetic indices, and coordination among autonomic indices to delineate autonomic activity associated with emotion regulation strategies.

Neural Correlates of Attention Lapses During Continuous Tasks

Attention lapses (ALs) are common phenomenon, which can affect our performance and productivity by slowing or suspending responsiveness. Occurrence of ALs during continuous monitoring tasks, such as driving or operating machinery, can lead to injuries and fatalities. However, we have limited understanding of what happens in the brain when ALs intrude during such continuous tasks. Here, we analyzed fMRI data from a study, in which participants performed a continuous visuomotor tracking task during fMRI scanning. A total of 68 ALs were identified from 20 individuals, using visual rating of tracking performance and video-based eye-closure. ALs were found to be associated with increased BOLD fMRI activity partially in the executive control network, and sensorimotor network. Surprisingly, we found no evidence of deactivations.

Inertia of emotions and inertia of the heart: Physiological processes underlying inertia of negative emotions at work

Emotional inertia is a key feature of emotional dynamics and it refers to the degree to which a current emotional state can be predicted by a previous emotional state. In this study, using the experience sampling method, we examined the relationship between inertia of negative emotions at work and parasympathetic activity, measured by vagally-mediated heart rate variability (HRV). In line with current literature on HRV, we propose that temporal dependency of negative emotions at work may be associated to lower HRV, an important marker of the ability to flexibly adjust to a changing environment. Participants (n = 120) were prompted six times during a regular workday, while wearing a heart rate monitor. In accordance with the polyvagal theory and the model of neurovisceral integration, findings supported our hypothesis and indicated that workers with lower HRV tend to show high time persistence of negative emotions at work. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Mind wandering in creative problem-solving: Relationships with divergent thinking and mental health

Previous research has shown that mind wandering has both positive and negative effects. Mind wandering may improve creative problem solving; however, it could also lead to negative moods and poor mental health. It has also been shown that some forms of mental illness are positively related to creativity. However, the three factors of mind wandering, divergent thinking, and mental health have not been examined simultaneously, so it is possible that these relationships are manifested by spurious correlations. Therefore, we examined the relations among the three factors while controlling for each of their confounding effects. We asked 865 participants (458 men, 390 women, 17 unknown; M_age = 18.99 years, SD = 1.16) to complete a questionnaire measuring mind wandering traits, divergent thinking, and mental health measures including depressive symptoms and schizotypal personality. Multiple regression analysis showed that people who reported more depressive symptoms, schizotypal personality, and divergent thinking, were more likely to engage in mind-wandering. Our results indicated that frequency of mind wandering was linked to a risk of poorer mental health as well as to higher divergent thinking ability. In future research, we will examine the features of mind wandering related to divergent thinking and mental health by considering the contents of wandering thoughts and whether they are ruminative or not. We also need to examine whether the same results will be found when studying professionals in creative occupations, and when using different scoring methods in divergent thinking tests.

Does Mind Wandering During the Thought Incubation Period Improve Creativity and Worsen Mood?

Enhancing creative problem-solving is increasingly important in a modern globalized society. Previous research has shown that creative problem-solving can be improved if the mind is allowed to wander during time set aside from solving a problem, known as the incubation period. However, some research also suggests that mind wandering leads to negative affect. Our study aims to clarify the effect of mind wandering during the incubation stage on both creative problem-solving and mood while controlling for the effect of working memory capacity. Fifty-two students (both undergraduate and graduates) completed a working memory task and repeated a creative problem-solving task at intervals before and after an incubation period. At the end of the incubation period, we measured participants' frequency of mind wandering and their moods. Results showed that the group with the higher frequency of mind wandering showed the most improvement in one indicator of creativity, flexibility, although this finding was not significant after adjusting for the other four facets. Moreover, our findings indicate that as creativity improved, more negative affect was generated. Our results suggest that mind wandering during the incubation stage could be used to generate more diverse ideas but also suggest that there is a risk attached. Further research should explore how specific features of mind wandering might improve creativity without generating negative affect.

Electroencephalography theta/beta ratio covaries with mind wandering and functional connectivity in the executive control network

The ratio between frontal resting‐state electroencephalography (EEG) theta and beta frequency power (theta/beta ratio, TBR) is negatively related to cognitive control. It is unknown which psychological processes during resting state account for this. Increased theta and reduced beta power are observed during mind wandering (MW), and MW is related to decreased connectivity in the executive control network (ECN) and increased connectivity in the default mode network (DMN). The goal of this study was to test if MW‐related fluctuations in TBR covary with such functional variation in ECN and DMN connectivity and if this functional variation is related to resting‐state TBR. Data were analyzed for 26 participants who performed a 40‐min breath‐counting task and reported the occurrence of MW episodes while EEG was measured and again during magnetic resonance imaging. Frontal TBR was higher during MW than controlled thought and this was marginally related to resting‐state TBR. DMN connectivity was higher and ECN connectivity was lower during MW. Greater ECN connectivity during focus than MW was correlated to lower TBR during focus than MW. These results provide the first evidence of the neural correlates of TBR and its functional dynamics and further establish TBR's usefulness for the study of executive control, in normal and potentially abnormal psychology.

Current State and Future Directions of Technology-Based Ecological Momentary Assessment and Intervention for Major Depressive Disorder: A Systematic Review

Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) and ecological momentary intervention (EMI) are alternative approaches to retrospective self-reports and face-to-face treatments, and they make it possible to repeatedly assess patients in naturalistic settings and extend psychological support into real life. The increase in smartphone applications and the availability of low-cost wearable biosensors have further improved the potential of EMA and EMI, which, however, have not yet been applied in clinical practice. Here, we conducted a systematic review, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, to explore the state of the art of technology-based EMA and EMI for major depressive disorder (MDD). A total of 33 articles were included (EMA = 26; EMI = 7). First, we provide a detailed analysis of the included studies from technical (sampling methods, duration, prompts), clinical (fields of application, adherence rates, dropouts, intervention effectiveness), and technological (adopted devices) perspectives. Then, we identify the advantages of using information and communications technologies (ICTs) to extend the potential of these approaches to the understanding, assessment, and intervention in depression. Furthermore, we point out the relevant issues that still need to be addressed within this field, and we discuss how EMA and EMI could benefit from the use of sensors and biosensors, along with recent advances in machine learning for affective modelling.

Mind-wandering, how do I measure thee with probes? Let me count the ways

In the past decade, a new field has formed to investigate the concept of mind-wandering, or task-unrelated thought. The state of mind-wandering is typically contrasted with being on-task, or paying attention to the task at hand, and is related to decrements in performance on cognitive tasks. The most widely used method for collecting mind-wandering data-the probe-caught method-involves stopping participants during a task and asking them where their attention is directed. In this review, 145 studies from 105 articles published between 2005 and 2015 were classified according to the framing and wording of the thought probe and response options. Five distinct methodologies were identified: neutral (in which counterbalancing was used to equally emphasize on-task and off-task states), dichotomous (say "yes" or "no" to one thought state), dichotomous (choose between two thought states), categorical, and scale. The review identifies at least 69 different methodological variants, catalogues the verbatim probes and response options used in each study, and suggests important considerations for future empirical work.

Moderating effects of the valence of social interaction on the dysfunctional consequences of perseverative cognition: an ecological study in major depression and social anxiety disorder

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Major depression disorder (MDD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) are characterized by the use of perseverative cognition (PC) as a dysfunctional coping strategy. We sought to investigate the dysfunctional physiological and psychological consequences of PC and how the valence of social interactions moderates such consequences in these psychopathological conditions.

DESIGN/METHODS

The study combined 24-hour heart rate variability (HRV) and ecological momentary assessments in 48 individuals with MDD, SAD, and sex-matched controls.

RESULTS

In all participants, PC was associated with mood worsening and reduced ability of the parasympathetic nervous system, mainly the vagus, to inhibit sympathetic arousal (i.e., reduced HRV). Individuals with SAD had the highest frequency of daily PC, while those with MDD reported that PC interfered more with their ongoing activities. In SAD, daily PC was associated with significantly lower HRV after negative social interactions. Individuals with MDD reported higher levels of sadness during PC irrespective of the valence of the preceding social interaction but higher levels of anxiety and efforts to inhibit PC following positive interactions.

CONCLUSIONS

Results highlight the need to account for important moderators like the valence of social interaction when looking at the physiological consequences of maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.

Decreased Task-Related HRV Is Associated With Inhibitory Dysfunction Through Functional Inter-Region Connectivity of PFC in Major Depressive Disorder

The regulation of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) can improve cognitive function in major depressive disorders (MDD). Heart rate variability (HRV) derives from the dynamic control of the ANS and reflects the balance between the activities of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems by measuring tiny changes in adjacent heart beats. Task-related HRV may reflect the association between the flexibility of cognition and ANS function. The study was to investigate the neural mechanism of interactions between ANS and cognitive function in MDD with Magnetoencephalography (MEG) measurements. Participants included 20 MDD patients and 18 healthy controls (HCs). All participants were measured with a go/no-go task MEG. HRV indices, the standard deviation of the average normal-to-normal (NN) interval calculated over short periods (SDANN) and the square root of the mean squared differences of successive NN intervals (RMSSD), were derived from the raw MEG data. Results showed that MDD patients showed decreased SDANN and RMSSD. In MDD patients, both resting-state and task-related RMSSD were related to inhibitory and control dysfunction. In the go/no-go task, many areas in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) are responsible for an individual's inhibitory function. A brain MEG functional connectivity analysis revealed that there were significant differences in four brain regions within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) between MDD patients and HCs. Task-related RMSSD in HCs were related to the functional connectivity between the left middle frontal gyrus and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), while in MDD patients, these values were not related to the above functional connectivity but were related to the functional connectivity between the left middle frontal gyrus and insula. However, the resting-state RMSSD value was not related to these significant difference functional connectivity networks in all participants. It concludes that the decreased task-related HRV is associated with inhibitory dysfunction through functional inter-region connectivity in the PFC in MDD, and the task-related HRV can be used as an index of the association between MDD and autonomic dysregulation.