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Wolpe N, Holton R, Fletcher PC. What Is Mental Effort: A Clinical Perspective. Biol Psychiatry 2024:S0006-3223(24)00065-9. [PMID: 38309319 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024]
Abstract
Although mental effort is a frequently used term, it is poorly defined and understood. Consequently, its usage is frequently loose and potentially misleading. In neuroscience research, the term is used to mean both the cognitive work that is done to meet task demands and the subjective experience of performing that work. We argue that conflating these two meanings hampers progress in understanding cognitive impairments in neuropsychiatric conditions because cognitive work and the subjective experience of it have distinct underlying mechanisms. We suggest that the most coherent and clinically useful perspective on mental effort is that it is a subjective experience. This makes a clear distinction between cognitive impairments that arise from changes in the cognitive apparatus, as in dementia and brain injury, and those that arise from subjective difficulties in carrying out the cognitive work, as in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, depression, and other motivational disorders. We review recent advances in neuroscience research that suggests that the experience of effort has emerged to control task switches so as to minimize costs relative to benefits. We consider how these advances can contribute to our understanding of the experience of increased effort perception in clinical populations. This more specific framing of mental effort will offer a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of cognitive impairments in differing clinical groups and will ultimately facilitate better therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noham Wolpe
- Department of Physical Therapy, The Stanley Steyer School of Health Professions, Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | - Richard Holton
- Faculty of Philosophy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Paul C Fletcher
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Cambridgeshire and Peterborough National Health Service Foundation Trust, Elizabeth House, Fulbourn, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Wellcome Trust Medical Research Council Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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2
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Guidetti OA, Speelman CP, Bouhlas P. Mapping between cognitive theories and psycho-physiological models of attention system performance. Cereb Cortex 2023; 33:10122-10138. [PMID: 37492014 PMCID: PMC10502801 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhad271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Declines in the capacity to sustain attention to repetitive, monotonous tasks is a phenomenon known as vigilance decrement (Endsley M, Kiris E. The out-of-the-loop performance problem and level of control in automation. 1995. Hum Factors. 37:32-64). This review compares cognitive theories with psycho-physiological models of vigilance decrement, and a gap is identified in mapping between the 2. That is, theories of vigilance decrement refer to "cognitive" resources; by contrast, psychophysiological models of the cerebral systems associated with attention explain performance functions according to neurochemical resources. A map does not currently exist in the literature that bridges the gap between cognitive theories of vigilance decrement and psychophysiological models of the human attention system. The link between "cognitive resource" theories of vigilance decrement and the psychophysiological models of attention performance is a gap in the literature that this review fills. This comprehensive review provides an expanded psychophysiological understanding of vigilance decrement that could help inform the management of declines in sustained attention capacity in operational settings. In addition, elucidating the link between cognitive theories of vigilance decrement and psychophysiological models of the human attention system might be used to treat and better understand pathologies such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver A Guidetti
- Western Australian Department of the Premier and Cabinet, The Cyber Security Research Cooperative, Edith Cowan University, Building 30, 270 Joondalup Dr, Joondalup, Western Australia 6027, Australia
| | - Craig P Speelman
- Department of Psychology, Edith Cowan University, Building 30, 270 Joondalup Dr, Joondalup, Western Australia 6027, Australia
| | - Peter Bouhlas
- Western Australian Department of the Premier and Cabinet, Dumas House, 2 Havelock St, West Perth, Western Australia 6005, Australia
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Helton WS, Wen J. Will the real resource theory please stand up! Vigilance is a renewable resource and should be modeled as such. Exp Brain Res 2023; 241:1263-1270. [PMID: 36997721 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-023-06604-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023]
Abstract
The vigilance decrement or decline in signal detection performance with time on task is one of the most reliable findings in the cognitive neuroscience and psychology literatures. The majority of theories proposed to explain the decrement are limited cognitive or attention resource based theories; the central nervous system is a limited capacity processor. The decrement in performance is then due to resource reallocation (or misallocation), resource depletion or some combination of both mechanisms. The role of resource depletion, in particular, is hotly debated. However, this may be due to a lack of understanding of the renewable nature of the vigilance resources and how this renewal process impacts performance during vigilance tasks. In the present paper, a simple quantitative model of vigilance resource depletion and renewal is described and shown to generate performance data similar to results seen in both humans and spiders. This model clarifies the role resource depletion and resource renewal may play in vigilance in both people and other animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- William S Helton
- Department of Psychology, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, 3F5, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA.
| | - James Wen
- Department of Logistics, Molde University College, Postbox 2110, 6402, Molde, Norway
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Ioannucci S, Chirokoff V, Dilharreguy B, Ozenne V, Chanraud S, Zénon A. Neural fatigue by passive induction: repeated stimulus exposure results in cognitive fatigue and altered representations in task-relevant networks. Commun Biol 2023; 6:142. [PMID: 36737639 PMCID: PMC9898557 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-04527-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cognitive fatigue is defined by a reduced capacity to perform mental tasks. Despite its pervasiveness, the underlying neural mechanisms remain elusive. Specifically, it is unclear whether prolonged effort affects performance through alterations in over-worked task-relevant neuronal assemblies. Our paradigm based on repeated passive visual stimulation discerns fatigue effects from the influence of motivation, skill and boredom. We induced performance loss and observed parallel alterations in the neural blueprint of the task, by mirroring behavioral performance with multivariate neuroimaging techniques (MVPA) that afford a subject-specific approach. Crucially, functional areas that responded the most to repeated stimulation were also the most affected. Finally, univariate analysis revealed clusters displaying significant disruption within the extrastriate visual cortex. In sum, here we show that repeated stimulation impacts the implicated brain areas' activity and causes tangible behavioral repercussions, providing evidence that cognitive fatigue can result from local, functional, disruptions in the neural signal induced by protracted recruitment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Ioannucci
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d'Aquitaine (INCIA)-UMR 5287, CNRS, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France. .,Visual and Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - Valentine Chirokoff
- grid.412041.20000 0001 2106 639XInstitut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d’Aquitaine (INCIA)—UMR 5287, CNRS, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France ,grid.440907.e0000 0004 1784 3645École Pratique des Hautes Études (EPHE), PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Bixente Dilharreguy
- grid.412041.20000 0001 2106 639XInstitut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d’Aquitaine (INCIA)—UMR 5287, CNRS, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Valéry Ozenne
- grid.412041.20000 0001 2106 639XCentre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques, UMR 5536, CNRS/Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Sandra Chanraud
- grid.412041.20000 0001 2106 639XInstitut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d’Aquitaine (INCIA)—UMR 5287, CNRS, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France ,grid.440907.e0000 0004 1784 3645École Pratique des Hautes Études (EPHE), PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Alexandre Zénon
- grid.412041.20000 0001 2106 639XInstitut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d’Aquitaine (INCIA)—UMR 5287, CNRS, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
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Behrens M, Gube M, Chaabene H, Prieske O, Zenon A, Broscheid KC, Schega L, Husmann F, Weippert M. Fatigue and Human Performance: An Updated Framework. Sports Med 2023; 53:7-31. [PMID: 36258141 PMCID: PMC9807493 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01748-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Fatigue has been defined differently in the literature depending on the field of research. The inconsistent use of the term fatigue complicated scientific communication, thereby limiting progress towards a more in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. Therefore, Enoka and Duchateau (Med Sci Sports Exerc 48:2228-38, 2016, [3]) proposed a fatigue framework that distinguishes between trait fatigue (i.e., fatigue experienced by an individual over a longer period of time) and motor or cognitive task-induced state fatigue (i.e., self-reported disabling symptom derived from the two interdependent attributes performance fatigability and perceived fatigability). Thereby, performance fatigability describes a decrease in an objective performance measure, while perceived fatigability refers to the sensations that regulate the integrity of the performer. Although this framework served as a good starting point to unravel the psychophysiology of fatigue, several important aspects were not included and the interdependence of the mechanisms driving performance fatigability and perceived fatigability were not comprehensively discussed. Therefore, the present narrative review aimed to (1) update the fatigue framework suggested by Enoka and Duchateau (Med Sci Sports Exerc 48:2228-38, 2016, [3]) pertaining the taxonomy (i.e., cognitive performance fatigue and perceived cognitive fatigue were added) and important determinants that were not considered previously (e.g., effort perception, affective valence, self-regulation), (2) discuss the mechanisms underlying performance fatigue and perceived fatigue in response to motor and cognitive tasks as well as their interdependence, and (3) provide recommendations for future research on these interactions. We propose to define motor or cognitive task-induced state fatigue as a psychophysiological condition characterized by a decrease in motor or cognitive performance (i.e., motor or cognitive performance fatigue, respectively) and/or an increased perception of fatigue (i.e., perceived motor or cognitive fatigue). These dimensions are interdependent, hinge on different determinants, and depend on body homeostasis (e.g., wakefulness, core temperature) as well as several modulating factors (e.g., age, sex, diseases, characteristics of the motor or cognitive task). Consequently, there is no single factor primarily determining performance fatigue and perceived fatigue in response to motor or cognitive tasks. Instead, the relative weight of each determinant and their interaction are modulated by several factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Behrens
- Department of Sport Science, Institute III, Otto-Von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Zschokkestraße 32, 39104, Magdeburg, Germany.
- Department of Orthopedics, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany.
| | - Martin Gube
- Department of Sport Science, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Helmi Chaabene
- Department of Sports and Health Sciences, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Olaf Prieske
- Division of Exercise and Movement, University of Applied Sciences for Sports and Management Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Alexandre Zenon
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d'Aquitaine (INCIA)-UMR 5287, CNRS, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Kim-Charline Broscheid
- Department of Sport Science, Institute III, Otto-Von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Zschokkestraße 32, 39104, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Lutz Schega
- Department of Sport Science, Institute III, Otto-Von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Zschokkestraße 32, 39104, Magdeburg, Germany
| | | | - Matthias Weippert
- Department of Sport Science, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
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Bijlsma A, Omrani A, Spoelder M, Verharen JPH, Bauer L, Cornelis C, de Zwart B, van Dorland R, Vanderschuren LJMJ, Wierenga CJ. Social Play Behavior Is Critical for the Development of Prefrontal Inhibitory Synapses and Cognitive Flexibility in Rats. J Neurosci 2022; 42:8716-8728. [PMID: 36253083 PMCID: PMC9671579 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0524-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensory driven activity during early life is critical for setting up the proper connectivity of the sensory cortices. We ask here whether social play behavior, a particular form of social interaction that is highly abundant during postweaning development, is equally important for setting up connections in the developing prefrontal cortex (PFC). Young male rats were deprived from social play with peers during the period in life when social play behavior normally peaks [postnatal day 21-42] (SPD rats), followed by resocialization until adulthood. We recorded synaptic currents in layer 5 cells in slices from medial PFC of adult SPD and control rats and observed that inhibitory synaptic currents were reduced in SPD slices, while excitatory synaptic currents were unaffected. This was associated with a decrease in perisomatic inhibitory synapses from parvalbumin-positive GABAergic cells. In parallel experiments, adult SPD rats achieved more reversals in a probabilistic reversal learning (PRL) task, which depends on the integrity of the PFC, by using a more simplified cognitive strategy than controls. Interestingly, we observed that one daily hour of play during SPD partially rescued the behavioral performance in the PRL, but did not prevent the decrease in PFC inhibitory synaptic inputs. Our data demonstrate the importance of unrestricted social play for the development of inhibitory synapses in the PFC and cognitive skills in adulthood and show that specific synaptic alterations in the PFC can result in a complex behavioral outcome.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This study addressed the question whether social play behavior in juvenile rats contributes to functional development of the prefrontal cortex (PFC). We found that rats that had been deprived from juvenile social play (social play deprivation - SPD) showed a reduction in inhibitory synapses in the PFC and a simplified strategy to solve a complex behavioral task in adulthood. Providing one daily hour of play during SPD partially rescued the cognitive skills in these rats, but did not prevent the reduction in PFC inhibitory synapses. Our results demonstrate a key role for unrestricted juvenile social play in PFC development and emphasize the complex relation between PFC circuit connectivity and cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ate Bijlsma
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Azar Omrani
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marcia Spoelder
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen P H Verharen
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Lisa Bauer
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Cosette Cornelis
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Beleke de Zwart
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - René van Dorland
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Louk J M J Vanderschuren
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Corette J Wierenga
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Brothers SL, Gereau MM, DesRuisseaux LA, Suchy Y. Reappraising cognitive reappraisal: The taxing impact of emotion regulation on executive functioning in older adults. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2022; 44:1-14. [PMID: 36094061 DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2022.2113765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Cognitive reappraisal (CR) and expressive suppression (ES) are two common emotion regulation strategies that share similar cognitive and neural underpinnings. Prior research has consistently shown that recent engagement in ES (both self-reported and experimentally manipulated) is associated with subsequent temporary decrements in executive functioning (EF). Thus far, only one study has examined the association between CR and EF, with null results. However, that study was limited by examining only zero-order correlations and by assessing only the speed, not accuracy, of EF performance. The present study examined multivariate relationships among recent CR, recent ES, and EF (both speed and accuracy), as well as the potential impacts of more chronic engagements in, and trait-level preferences between, the two emotion regulation strategies. METHOD Participants were 201 community-dwelling older adults aged 60 to 93 who had participated in three separate studies examining the relationship between self-reported emotion regulation and EF. RESULTS Recent CR was associated with EF performance accuracy above and beyond chronic CR. Both recent CR and ES contributed to EF performance accuracy uniquely beyond each other and beyond chronic and preferred emotion regulation. CONCLUSIONS Both recent ES and CR appear to have a deleterious impact on EF performance accuracy, potentially due to utilization of similar resources; both should be accounted for when assessing emotion regulation and its impacts on EF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey L Brothers
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Michelle M Gereau
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | | | - Yana Suchy
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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Hinss MF, Brock AM, Roy RN. Cognitive effects of prolonged continuous human-machine interaction: The case for mental state-based adaptive interfaces. FRONTIERS IN NEUROERGONOMICS 2022; 3:935092. [PMID: 38235472 PMCID: PMC10790890 DOI: 10.3389/fnrgo.2022.935092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Operators of complex systems across multiple domains (e.g., aviation, automotive, and nuclear power industry) are required to perform their tasks over prolonged and continuous periods of time. Mental fatigue as well as reduced cognitive flexibility, attention, and situational awareness all result from prolonged continuous use, putting at risk the safety and efficiency of complex operations. Mental state-based adaptive systems may be a solution to this problem. These systems infer the current mental state of an operator based on a selection of metrics ranging from operator independent measures (e.g., weather and time of day), to behavioral (e.g., reaction time and lane deviation) as well as physiological markers (e.g., electroencephalography and cardiac activity). The interaction between operator and system may then be adapted in one of many ways to mitigate any detected degraded cognitive state, thereby ensuring continued safety and efficiency. Depending on the task at hand and its specific problems, possible adaptations -usually based on machine learning estimations- e.g., include modifications of information, presentation modality or stimuli salience, as well as task scheduling. Research on adaptive systems is at the interface of several domains, including neuroergonomics, human factors, and human-computer interaction in an applied and ecological context, necessitating careful consideration of each of the aforementioned aspects. This article provides an overview of some of the key questions and aspects to be considered by researchers for the design of mental state-based adaptive systems, while also promoting their application during prolonged continuous use to pave the way toward safer and more efficient human-machine interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel F. Hinss
- Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace (ISAE-SUPAERO), Toulouse, France
- Ecole Nationale de l'Aviation Civile (ENAC), Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Anke M. Brock
- Ecole Nationale de l'Aviation Civile (ENAC), Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Raphaëlle N. Roy
- Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace (ISAE-SUPAERO), Toulouse, France
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Yufik Y, Malhotra R. Situational Understanding in the Human and the Machine. Front Syst Neurosci 2021; 15:786252. [PMID: 35002643 PMCID: PMC8733725 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.786252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Air Force research programs envision developing AI technologies that will ensure battlespace dominance, by radical increases in the speed of battlespace understanding and decision-making. In the last half century, advances in AI have been concentrated in the area of machine learning. Recent experimental findings and insights in systems neuroscience, the biophysics of cognition, and other disciplines provide converging results that set the stage for technologies of machine understanding and machine-augmented Situational Understanding. This paper will review some of the key ideas and results in the literature, and outline new suggestions. We define situational understanding and the distinctions between understanding and awareness, consider examples of how understanding-or lack of it-manifest in performance, and review hypotheses concerning the underlying neuronal mechanisms. Suggestions for further R&D are motivated by these hypotheses and are centered on the notions of Active Inference and Virtual Associative Networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Yufik
- Virtual Structures Research, Inc., Potomac, MD, United States
| | - Raj Malhotra
- United States Air Force Sensor Directorate, Dayton, OH, United States
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Sprague BN, Zhu X, Ehrenkranz RC, Tian Q, Gmelin TA, Glynn NW, Rosso AL, Rosano C. Declining energy predicts incident mobility disability and mortality risk in healthy older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2021; 69:3134-3141. [PMID: 34297847 DOI: 10.1111/jgs.17372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose was to examine whether longitudinal changes in self-reported energy predict incident mobility disability and mortality. We further explored whether changes in energy-related behaviors (physical activity, appetite, or sleep quality) would explain these associations. METHODS N = 2021 participants from the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study free from mobility disability and with at least three energy assessments from years 2 to 10. MEASUREMENTS The outcomes were time to first self-reported inability to walk a quarter of a mile (mobility disability) and death. Self-reported energy level (SEL) was a single-item indicator over the prior month, ranging from 0 to 10; person-specific slopes measured whether individuals increased or decreased in SEL across the total follow-up time (mean 7.09 years, +1.72, range 2-8 years). Potential energy-related mediators were baseline and change in self-reported physical activity, appetite, and sleep quality. Covariates were baseline levels and change in demographics, health characteristics and behaviors, tiredness, cognition, mood, and gait speed. RESULTS A total of 947 developed disability and 567 died over the study follow-up. A one-point change in SEL over the follow-up (or an average 0.125 points/year) was inversely associated with a 35% risk of incident mobility disability (hazard ratio = 0.65, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.55, 0.76, p < 0.001) and 35% risk of death (hazard ratio = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.42, 0.87, p = 0.003), independent of covariates. Potential energy-related mediators did not attenuate this association. CONCLUSIONS In this longitudinal analysis of community-dwelling older adults, energy decline was common and a significant independent predictor of disability risk and mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Briana N Sprague
- Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Xiaonan Zhu
- Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Rebecca C Ehrenkranz
- Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Qu Tian
- Longitudinal Studies Section, Translational Gerontology Branch, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Theresa A Gmelin
- Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nancy W Glynn
- Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Andrea L Rosso
- Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Caterina Rosano
- Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
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11
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Marchesi S, Bossi F, Ghiglino D, De Tommaso D, Wykowska A. I Am Looking for Your Mind: Pupil Dilation Predicts Individual Differences in Sensitivity to Hints of Human-Likeness in Robot Behavior. Front Robot AI 2021; 8:653537. [PMID: 34222350 PMCID: PMC8249729 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2021.653537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of artificial agents in our everyday lives is continuously increasing. Hence, the question of how human social cognition mechanisms are activated in interactions with artificial agents, such as humanoid robots, is frequently being asked. One interesting question is whether humans perceive humanoid robots as mere artifacts (interpreting their behavior with reference to their function, thereby adopting the design stance) or as intentional agents (interpreting their behavior with reference to mental states, thereby adopting the intentional stance). Due to their humanlike appearance, humanoid robots might be capable of evoking the intentional stance. On the other hand, the knowledge that humanoid robots are only artifacts should call for adopting the design stance. Thus, observing a humanoid robot might evoke a cognitive conflict between the natural tendency of adopting the intentional stance and the knowledge about the actual nature of robots, which should elicit the design stance. In the present study, we investigated the cognitive conflict hypothesis by measuring participants’ pupil dilation during the completion of the InStance Test. Prior to each pupillary recording, participants were instructed to observe the humanoid robot iCub behaving in two different ways (either machine-like or humanlike behavior). Results showed that pupil dilation and response time patterns were predictive of individual biases in the adoption of the intentional or design stance in the IST. These results may suggest individual differences in mental effort and cognitive flexibility in reading and interpreting the behavior of an artificial agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Marchesi
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy.,Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Francesco Bossi
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy.,IMT School for Advanced Studies, Lucca, Italy
| | - Davide Ghiglino
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy.,Dipartimento di Informatica, Bioingegneria, Robotica e Ingegneria dei Sistemi, Università di Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Davide De Tommaso
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Agnieszka Wykowska
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
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12
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Psychosocial stress and cortisol stress reactivity predict breast milk composition. Sci Rep 2021; 11:11576. [PMID: 34078999 PMCID: PMC8172899 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90980-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We studied a sample of 146 Polish, exclusively breastfeeding mothers and their healthy born on time infants to explore the effect of perinatal psychosocial stress on breast milk composition. Maternal perinatal stress was assessed using Recent Life Changes Questionnaire summarizing stressful events from the previous six months. Stress reactivity was determined by administering the cold pressor test and measuring cortisol in saliva samples taken during the test. Breast milk sample was taken to measure energy, protein, fat, lactose, and fatty acid content. Analyses revealed that stress reactivity was positively associated with milk fat and long-chain unsaturated fatty acids and negatively associated with milk lactose. Perinatal psychosocial stress negatively affected energy density, fat as well as medium-chain and long-chain saturated fatty acids in milk. These results, together with previous studies, advocate monitoring maternal psychological status during the peripartum to promote breastfeeding and healthy infant nutrition.
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13
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Ferreira AI, Pérez-Nebra AR, Ellen Costa E, Aguiar MLA, Zambonato A, Costa CG, Modesto JG, Ferreira PDC. Presenteeism and Productivity: The Role of Biomarkers and Hormones. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18095014. [PMID: 34068466 PMCID: PMC8126032 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18095014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Purpose. This study aimed to assess whether self-reported productivity despite presenteeism may be affected by biomarkers and hormones and how these physiological indicators can interact with each other to explain the presenteeism dimensions. Methods. This pilot study included 180 healthy participants with a mean age of 41.22 years (SD = 13.58), 76.11% of whom were female. The dependent variable included a self-reported measure of productivity loss due to presenteeism: the Stanford Presenteeism Scale 6. This study also includes physiological indicators such as biomarkers (C-reactive protein (CRP) and blood glucose) and hormones (cortisol and TSH thyroid hormone). Results. Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that CRP moderated the relationship between cortisol levels and productivity despite presenteeism. Moreover, the increase of TSH moderated the relationship between cortisol, glycemia, and employees’ capacity to complete work tasks while sick. Conclusions. The results highlight TSH’s moderating role in decreasing employees’ capacity to fulfill tasks when these individuals have high levels of glycemia and cortisol in their blood. These findings have practical and theoretical implications based on a fuller understanding of how biomarkers and hormones explain productivity despite presenteeism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aristides I. Ferreira
- ISCTE—Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), Avenida das Forças Armadas, 1649-026 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-21-790-3415
| | - Amalia R. Pérez-Nebra
- UnB—Universidade de Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Brasília, DF 70910-900, Brazil;
- Department of Psychology, Universidad Internacional de Valencia, Calle Pintor Sorolla, 21, 46002 Valencia, Spain
| | - Eva Ellen Costa
- ISCSP—Instituto Superior de Ciências Sociais e Politicas da Universidade de Lisboa, R. Almerindo Lessa, 1300-666 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Maria Luisa A. Aguiar
- UniCEUB—Centro Universitário de Brasília, SEPN 707/907, Campus do UniCEUB, Bloco 9, Asa Norte, Brasília, DF 70910-900, Brazil; (M.L.A.A.); (A.Z.); (J.G.M.)
| | - Adriane Zambonato
- UniCEUB—Centro Universitário de Brasília, SEPN 707/907, Campus do UniCEUB, Bloco 9, Asa Norte, Brasília, DF 70910-900, Brazil; (M.L.A.A.); (A.Z.); (J.G.M.)
| | - Carla G. Costa
- ISMAT—Instituto Superior Manuel Teixeira Gomes, R. Dr. Estevão de Vasconcelos 33 A, 8500-656 Portimão, Portugal;
| | - João G. Modesto
- UniCEUB—Centro Universitário de Brasília, SEPN 707/907, Campus do UniCEUB, Bloco 9, Asa Norte, Brasília, DF 70910-900, Brazil; (M.L.A.A.); (A.Z.); (J.G.M.)
- UEG—Universidade Estadual de Goiás, Av. Universitária, S/N—Nordeste, Formosa, GO 73807-250, Brazil
| | - Paula da Costa Ferreira
- CICPSI (UIDB/04527/2020; UIDP/04527/2020)—Faculty of Psychology, University of Lisbon, Alameda da Universidade, 1649-013 Lisboa, Portugal;
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Salomone M, Burle B, Fabre L, Berberian B. An Electromyographic Analysis of the Effects of Cognitive Fatigue on Online and Anticipatory Action Control. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 14:615046. [PMID: 33505260 PMCID: PMC7829365 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.615046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive fatigue is a problem for the safety of critical systems (e.g., aircraft) as it can lead to accidents, especially during unexpected events. In order to determine the extent to which it disrupts adaptive capabilities, we evaluated its effect on online and anticipatory control. Despite numerous studies conducted to determine its effects, the exact mechanism(s) affected by fatigue remains to be clarified. In this study, we used distribution and electromyographic analysis to assess whether cognitive fatigue increases the capture of the incorrect automatic response or if it impairs its suppression (online control), and whether the conflict adaptation effect is reduced (anticipatory control). To this end, we evaluated the evolution of the performance over time during the Simon task, a classic conflict task that elicits incorrect automatic responses. To accentuate the presence of fatigue during the Simon task, two groups previously performed a dual-task with two different cognitive load levels to create two different levels of fatigue. The results revealed that time on task impaired online control by disrupting the capacity to suppress the incorrect response but leaving unaffected the expression of the automatic response. Furthermore, participants emphasized speed rather than accuracy with time on task, with in addition more fast guesses, suggesting that they opted for a less effortful response strategy. As the implementation of the suppression mechanism requires cognitive effort, the conjunction of these results suggests that the deficits observed may be due to disengagement of effort over time rather than reflecting an incapacity to make an effort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mick Salomone
- Information Processing and Systems, ONERA, Salon de Provence, Base Aérienne 701, France
| | - Boris Burle
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, LNC UMR 7291, Marseille, France
| | - Ludovic Fabre
- Centre de Recherche de l'Ecole de l'Air, Salon de Provence, Base Aérienne 701, France
| | - Bruno Berberian
- Information Processing and Systems, ONERA, Salon de Provence, Base Aérienne 701, France
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15
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When Natural Behavior Engages Working Memory. Curr Biol 2020; 31:869-874.e5. [PMID: 33278355 PMCID: PMC7902904 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Working memory (WM) enables temporary storage and manipulation of information,1 supporting tasks that require bridging between perception and subsequent behavior. Its properties, such as its capacity, have been thoroughly investigated in highly controlled laboratory tasks.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Much less is known about the utilization and properties of WM in natural behavior,9, 10, 11 when reliance on WM emerges as a natural consequence of interactions with the environment. We measured the trade-off between reliance on WM and gathering information externally during immersive behavior in an adapted object-copying task.12 By manipulating the locomotive demands required for task completion, we could investigate whether and how WM utilization changed as gathering information from the environment became more effortful. Reliance on WM was lower than WM capacity measures in typical laboratory tasks. A clear trade-off also occurred. As sampling information from the environment required increasing locomotion and time investment, participants relied more on their WM representations. This reliance on WM increased in a shallow and linear fashion and was associated with longer encoding durations. Participants’ avoidance of WM usage showcases a fundamental dependence on external information during ecological behavior, even if the potentially storable information is well within the capacity of the cognitive system. These foundational findings highlight the importance of using immersive tasks to understand how cognitive processes unfold within natural behavior. Our novel VR approach effectively combines the ecological validity, experimental rigor, and sensitive measures required to investigate the interplay between memory and perception in immersive behavior. Video Abstract
Gaze provides a measure of working-memory (WM) usage during natural behavior Natural reliance on WM is low even when searching for objects externally is effortful WM utilization increases linearly as searching for objects requires more locomotion The trade-off between using WM versus external sampling affects performance
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16
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Herrmann B, Johnsrude IS. A model of listening engagement (MoLE). Hear Res 2020; 397:108016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2020.108016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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17
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van Schouwenburg MR, Sligte IG, Giffin MR, Günther F, Koster D, Spronkers FS, Vos A, Slagter HA. Effects of Midfrontal Brain Stimulation on Sustained Attention. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s41465-020-00179-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
AbstractSustained attention is defined as the ability to maintain attention over longer periods of time, which typically declines with time on task (i.e., the vigilance decrement). Previous studies have suggested an important role for the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in sustained attention. In two experiments, we aimed to enhance sustained attention by applying transcranial electrical current stimulation over the mPFC during a sustained attention task. In the first experiment, we applied transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in a between-subject design (n = 97): participants received either anodal, cathodal, or sham stimulation. Contrary to our prediction, we found no effect of stimulation on the vigilance decrement. In the second experiment, participants received theta and alpha transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) in two separate sessions (n = 47, within-subject design). Here, we found a frequency-dependent effect on the vigilance decrement, such that contrary to our expectation, participants’ performance over time became worse after theta compared with alpha stimulation. However, this result needs to be interpreted with caution given that this effect could be driven by differential side effects between the two stimulation frequencies. To conclude, across two studies, we were not able to reduce the vigilant decrement using tDCS or theta tACS.
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18
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Byrne A, Kokmotou K, Roberts H, Soto V, Tyson-Carr J, Hewitt D, Giesbrecht T, Stancak A. The cortical oscillatory patterns associated with varying levels of reward during an effortful vigilance task. Exp Brain Res 2020; 238:1839-1859. [PMID: 32507992 PMCID: PMC7438383 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-020-05825-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We explored how reward and value of effort shapes performance in a sustained vigilance, reaction time (RT) task. It was posited that reward and value would hasten RTs and increase cognitive effort by boosting activation in the sensorimotor cortex and inhibition in the frontal cortex, similar to the horse-race model of motor actions. Participants performed a series of speeded responses while expecting differing monetary rewards (0 pence (p), 1 p, and 10 p) if they responded faster than their median RT. Amplitudes of cortical alpha, beta, and theta oscillations were analysed using the event-related desynchronization method. In experiment 1 (N = 29, with 12 females), reward was consistent within block, while in experiment 2 (N = 17, with 12 females), reward amount was displayed before each trial. Each experiment evaluated the baseline amplitude of cortical oscillations differently. The value of effort was evaluated using a cognitive effort discounting task (COGED). In both experiments, RTs decreased significantly with higher rewards. Reward level sharpened the increased amplitudes of beta oscillations during fast responses in experiment 1. In experiment 2, reward decreased the amplitudes of beta oscillations in the ipsilateral sensorimotor cortex. Individual effort values did not significantly correlate with oscillatory changes in either experiment. Results suggest that reward level and response speed interacted with the task- and baseline-dependent patterns of cortical inhibition in the frontal cortex and with activation in the sensorimotor cortex during the period of motor preparation in a sustained vigilance task. However, neither the shortening of RT with increasing reward nor the value of effort correlated with oscillatory changes. This implies that amplitudes of cortical oscillations may shape upcoming motor responses but do not translate higher-order motivational factors into motor performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Byrne
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZA, UK. .,Institute for Risk and Uncertainty, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
| | - Katerina Kokmotou
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZA, UK.,Institute for Risk and Uncertainty, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Hannah Roberts
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZA, UK
| | - Vicente Soto
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZA, UK.,Centre for Social and Cognitive Neuroscience (CSCN), School of Psychology, Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez, Santiago, Chile
| | - John Tyson-Carr
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZA, UK
| | - Danielle Hewitt
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZA, UK
| | | | - Andrej Stancak
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZA, UK.,Institute for Risk and Uncertainty, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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19
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Lin SJ, Kolind S, Liu A, McMullen K, Vavasour I, Wang ZJ, Traboulsee A, McKeown MJ. Both Stationary and Dynamic Functional Interhemispheric Connectivity Are Strongly Associated With Performance on Cognitive Tests in Multiple Sclerosis. Front Neurol 2020; 11:407. [PMID: 32581993 PMCID: PMC7287147 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Although functional connectivity has been extensively studied in MS, robust estimates of both stationary (static connectivity at the time) and dynamic (connectivity variation across time) functional connectivity has not been commonly evaluated and neither has its association to cognition. In this study, we focused on interhemispheric connections as previous research has shown links between anatomical homologous connections and cognition. We examined functional interhemispheric connectivity (IC) in MS during resting-state functional MRI using both stationary and dynamic strategies and related connectivity measures to processing speed performance. Twenty-five patients with relapsing-remitting MS and 41 controls were recruited. Stationary functional IC was assessed between homologous Regions of Interest (ROIs) using correlation. For dynamic IC, a sliding window approach was used to quantify changes between homologous ROIs across time. We related IC measures to cognitive performance with correlation and regression. Compared to control subjects, MS demonstrated increased IC across homologous regions, which accurately predicted performance on the symbol digit modalities test (SDMT) (R 2 = 0.96) and paced auditory serial addition test (PASAT) (R 2 = 0.59). Dynamic measures were not different between the 2 groups, but dynamic IC was related to PASAT scores. The associations between stationary/dynamic connectivity and cognitive tests demonstrated that different aspects of functional IC were associated with cognitive processes. Processing speed measured in SDMT was associated with static interhemispheric connections and better PASAT performance, which requires working memory, sustain attention, and processing speed, was more related to rigid IC, underlining the neurophysiological mechanism of cognition in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sue-Jin Lin
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Shannon Kolind
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, UBC Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Aiping Liu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Program, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Katrina McMullen
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, UBC Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Irene Vavasour
- Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Z Jane Wang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Program, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Anthony Traboulsee
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, UBC Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Martin J McKeown
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, UBC Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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20
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Theriault JE, Young L, Barrett LF. The sense of should: A biologically-based framework for modeling social pressure. Phys Life Rev 2020; 36:100-136. [PMID: 32008953 DOI: 10.1016/j.plrev.2020.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
What is social pressure, and how could it be adaptive to conform to others' expectations? Existing accounts highlight the importance of reputation and social sanctions. Yet, conformist behavior is multiply determined: sometimes, a person desires social regard, but at other times she feels obligated to behave a certain way, regardless of any reputational benefit-i.e. she feels a sense of should. We develop a formal model of this sense of should, beginning from a minimal set of biological premises: that the brain is predictive, that prediction error has a metabolic cost, and that metabolic costs are prospectively avoided. It follows that unpredictable environments impose metabolic costs, and in social environments these costs can be reduced by conforming to others' expectations. We elaborate on a sense of should's benefits and subjective experience, its likely developmental trajectory, and its relation to embodied mental inference. From this individualistic metabolic strategy, the emergent dynamics unify social phenomenon ranging from status quo biases, to communication and motivated cognition. We offer new solutions to long-studied problems (e.g. altruistic behavior), and show how compliance with arbitrary social practices is compelled without explicit sanctions. Social pressure may provide a foundation in individuals on which societies can be built.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Liane Young
- Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
| | - Lisa Feldman Barrett
- Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA; Psychiatric Neuroimaging Division, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
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21
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André N, Audiffren M, Baumeister RF. An Integrative Model of Effortful Control. Front Syst Neurosci 2019; 13:79. [PMID: 31920573 PMCID: PMC6933500 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2019.00079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This article presents an integrative model of effortful control, a resource-limited top-down control mechanism involved in mental tasks and physical exercises. Based on recent findings in the fields of neuroscience, social psychology and cognitive psychology, this model posits the intrinsic costs related to a weakening of the connectivity of neural networks underpinning effortful control as the main cause of mental fatigue in long and high-demanding tasks. In this framework, effort reflects three different inter-related aspects of the same construct. First, effort is a mechanism comprising a limited number of interconnected processing units that integrate information regarding the task constraints and subject’s state. Second, effort is the main output of this mechanism, namely, the effort signal that modulates neuronal activity in brain regions involved in the current task to select pertinent information. Third, effort is a feeling that emerges in awareness during effortful tasks and reflects the costs associated with goal-directed behavior. Finally, the model opens new avenues for research investigating effortful control at the behavioral and neurophysiological levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie André
- Research Centre on Cognition and Learning, UMR CNRS 7295, University of Poitiers, Poitiers, France
| | - Michel Audiffren
- Research Centre on Cognition and Learning, UMR CNRS 7295, University of Poitiers, Poitiers, France
| | - Roy F Baumeister
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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22
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Bellelli PG, Biotto M, Morandi A, Meagher D, Cesari M, Mazzola P, Annoni G, Zambon A. The relationship among frailty, delirium and attentional tests to detect delirium: a cohort study. Eur J Intern Med 2019; 70:33-38. [PMID: 31761505 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejim.2019.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Few studies explored if frailty predisposes to delirium in hospitalized older patients. The aims of this study were to evaluate if frailty: 1) is independently associated with delirium, and 2) affects the patient's performance in three tests of attention used to detect delirium. METHODS Data are from a prospective cohort study of patients admitted to an Acute Geriatric Unit (AGU). Frailty was operationalized using the health deficit accumulation model (38-item Frailty Index). Delirium was screened using the 4AT, and the diagnosis confirmed with the DSM-5th criteria. During the first 7 days from the hospital admission, patients also underwent a double-blind assessment of attention using three ad hoc tests (i.e., Months of the year backwards, MOTYB; Days of the week backwards, DOWB; and Count backwards from 20 to 1, CB). RESULTS Eighty-nine patients were included (mean age 83.1 years, standard deviation 6.0). Forty-two (47.19%) patients were frail, and 37 (41.7%) had delirium. The likelihood of delirium was significantly higher in frail compared to the non-frail patients; it was also inversely associated with the three attention tests. Using the MOTYB test, the ability to discriminate delirium was similar in patients with (Area Under the Receiving Operator Characteristic [AUROC] 0.88, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 0.82-0.92) and without frailty (AUROC 0.93, 95%CI 0.90-0.95) whilst was markedly different between the same groups using either DOWB and CB. CONCLUSIONS Frailty is associated with delirium in hospitalized older patients and can influence the patient's performances at attentional tests that are commonly used to screen delirium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prof Giuseppe Bellelli
- School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Via Cadore 48, 20900 Monza, Acute Geriatric Unit, San Gerardo hospital, Monza, Italy..
| | - Martina Biotto
- Geriatric Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca 'Granda-Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy; Department of Clinical and Community Sciences, University of Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandro Morandi
- Department of Rehabilitation and Aged Care Hospital Ancelle, Cremona, Italy
| | - David Meagher
- Cognitive Impairment Research Group (CIRG). Graduate-Entry Medical School University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
| | - Matteo Cesari
- Geriatric Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca 'Granda-Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy; Department of Clinical and Community Sciences, University of Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Mazzola
- School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Via Cadore 48, 20900 Monza, Acute Geriatric Unit, San Gerardo hospital, Monza, Italy
| | - Giorgio Annoni
- School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Via Cadore 48, 20900 Monza, Acute Geriatric Unit, San Gerardo hospital, Monza, Italy
| | - Antonella Zambon
- Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Statistics and Quantitative Methods, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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23
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Francis AL, Love J. Listening effort: Are we measuring cognition or affect, or both? WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2019; 11:e1514. [PMID: 31381275 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 07/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Listening effort is increasingly recognized as a factor in communication, particularly for and with nonnative speakers, for the elderly, for individuals with hearing impairment and/or for those working in noise. However, as highlighted by McGarrigle et al., International Journal of Audiology, 2014, 53, 433-445, the term "listening effort" encompasses a wide variety of concepts, including the engagement and control of multiple possibly distinct neural systems for information processing, and the affective response to the expenditure of those resources in a given context. Thus, experimental or clinical methods intended to objectively quantify listening effort may ultimately reflect a complex interaction between the operations of one or more of those information processing systems, and/or the affective and motivational response to the demand on those systems. Here we examine theoretical, behavioral, and psychophysiological factors related to resolving the question of what we are measuring, and why, when we measure "listening effort." This article is categorized under: Linguistics > Language in Mind and Brain Psychology > Theory and Methods Psychology > Attention Psychology > Emotion and Motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander L Francis
- Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
| | - Jordan Love
- Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
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24
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Massar SAA, Lim J, Huettel SA. Sleep deprivation, effort allocation and performance. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2019; 246:1-26. [PMID: 31072557 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Sleep deprivation causes physiological alterations (e.g., decreased arousal, intrusion of micro-sleeps), that negatively affect performance on a wide range of cognitive domains. These effects indicate that cognitive performance relies on a capacity-limited system that may be more challenged in the absence of sleep. Additionally, sleep loss can result in a lower willingness to exert effort in the pursuit of performance goals. Such deficits in motivation may interact with the effects of capacity limitations to further stifle cognitive performance. When sleep-deprived, cognitive performance is experienced as more effortful, and intrinsic motivation to perform dwindles. On the other hand, increasing motivation extrinsically (e.g., by monetary incentives) can inspire individuals to allocate more task-related effort, and can partially counter performance deficits associated with sleep deprivation. In this chapter, we review current research on the interplay between sleep deprivation, effort and performance. We integrate these findings into an effort-based decision-making framework in which sleep-related performance impairments may result from a voluntary decision to withdraw effort. We conclude with practical implications of this framework for performance in healthy populations (e.g., work productivity) and clinical conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stijn A A Massar
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Neuroscience and Behavioural Disorders Programme, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Julian Lim
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Neuroscience and Behavioural Disorders Programme, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Scott A Huettel
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States; Brain Imaging and Analysis Center, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States; Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States.
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25
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Cognitive task avoidance correlates with fatigue-induced performance decrement but not with subjective fatigue. Neuropsychologia 2019; 123:30-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Zénon A, Solopchuk O, Pezzulo G. An information-theoretic perspective on the costs of cognition. Neuropsychologia 2018; 123:5-18. [PMID: 30268880 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In statistics and machine learning, model accuracy is traded off with complexity, which can be viewed as the amount of information extracted from the data. Here, we discuss how cognitive costs can be expressed in terms of similar information costs, i.e. as a function of the amount of information required to update a person's prior knowledge (or internal model) to effectively solve a task. We then examine the theoretical consequences that ensue from this assumption. This framework naturally explains why some tasks - for example, unfamiliar or dual tasks - are costly and permits to quantify these costs using information-theoretic measures. Finally, we discuss brain implementation of this principle and show that subjective cognitive costs can originate either from local or global capacity limitations on information processing or from increased rate of metabolic alterations. These views shed light on the potential adaptive value of cost-avoidance mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Zénon
- Institut de Neuroscience Cognitive et Intégrative d'Aquitaine, Université de Bordeaux, France; Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Oleg Solopchuk
- Institut de Neuroscience Cognitive et Intégrative d'Aquitaine, Université de Bordeaux, France; Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Giovanni Pezzulo
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Via San Martino della Battaglia 44, 00185 Rome, Italy
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van den Berg R, Ma WJ. A resource-rational theory of set size effects in human visual working memory. eLife 2018; 7:e34963. [PMID: 30084356 PMCID: PMC6110611 DOI: 10.7554/elife.34963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Encoding precision in visual working memory decreases with the number of encoded items. Here, we propose a normative theory for such set size effects: the brain minimizes a weighted sum of an error-based behavioral cost and a neural encoding cost. We construct a model from this theory and find that it predicts set size effects. Notably, these effects are mediated by probing probability, which aligns with previous empirical findings. The model accounts well for effects of both set size and probing probability on encoding precision in nine delayed-estimation experiments. Moreover, we find support for the prediction that the total amount of invested resource can vary non-monotonically with set size. Finally, we show that it is sometimes optimal to encode only a subset or even none of the relevant items in a task. Our findings raise the possibility that cognitive "limitations" arise from rational cost minimization rather than from constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wei Ji Ma
- Center for Neural Science and Department of PsychologyNew York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
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28
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Massar SAA, Csathó Á, Van der Linden D. Quantifying the Motivational Effects of Cognitive Fatigue Through Effort-Based Decision Making. Front Psychol 2018; 9:843. [PMID: 29899717 PMCID: PMC5988875 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Stijn A A Massar
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Árpád Csathó
- Institue of Behavioral Sciences, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Dimitri Van der Linden
- Department of Psychology, Education, and Child Studies, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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Shenhav A, Musslick S, Lieder F, Kool W, Griffiths TL, Cohen JD, Botvinick MM. Toward a Rational and Mechanistic Account of Mental Effort. Annu Rev Neurosci 2017; 40:99-124. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-072116-031526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 443] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amitai Shenhav
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912
- Brown Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912
| | - Sebastian Musslick
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544
| | - Falk Lieder
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
| | - Wouter Kool
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138
| | - Thomas L. Griffiths
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
| | - Jonathan D. Cohen
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08540
| | - Matthew M. Botvinick
- Google DeepMind, London M1C 4AG, United Kingdom
- Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, University College London, London W1T 4JG, United Kingdom
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30
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Wallace R. Sleep, Psychopathology, and Culture. COMPUTATIONAL PSYCHIATRY 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-53910-2_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
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31
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Wallace R. High metabolic demand in neural tissues: Information and control theory perspectives on the synergism between rate and stability. J Theor Biol 2016; 409:86-96. [PMID: 27582301 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2016.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Revised: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionary process has been selected for inherently unstable systems in higher animals that can react swiftly to changing patterns of threat or opportunity, for example blood pressure, the immune response, and gene expression. However, these require continual strict regulation: uncontrolled blood pressure is fatal, immune cells can attack 'self' tissues, and improper gene expression triggers developmental disorders. Consciousness in particular demands high rates of metabolic free energy to both operate and regulate the fundamental biological machinery: both the 'stream of consciousness' and the 'riverbanks' that confine it to useful realms are constructed and reconstructed moment-by-moment in response to highly dynamic internal and environmental circumstances. We develop powerful necessary conditions models for such phenomena based on the Data Rate Theorem linking control and information theories in the context of inherent instability. The synergism between conscious action and its regulation underlies the ten-fold higher rate of metabolic energy consumption in human neural tissues and implies a close, culturally modulated relation between sleep disorders and certain psychopathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrick Wallace
- Division of Epidemiology, The New York State Psychiatric Institute, United States.
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