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Wee IC, Arulsamy A, Corrigan F, Collins-Praino L. Long-Term Impact of Diffuse Traumatic Brain Injury on Neuroinflammation and Catecholaminergic Signaling: Potential Relevance for Parkinson's Disease Risk. Molecules 2024; 29:1470. [PMID: 38611750 PMCID: PMC11013319 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29071470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with an increased risk of developing Parkinson's disease (PD), though the exact mechanisms remain unclear. TBI triggers acute neuroinflammation and catecholamine dysfunction post-injury, both implicated in PD pathophysiology. The long-term impact on these pathways following TBI, however, remains uncertain. In this study, male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent sham surgery or Marmarou's impact acceleration model to induce varying TBI severities: single mild TBI (mTBI), repetitive mild TBI (rmTBI), or moderate-severe TBI (msTBI). At 12 months post-injury, astrocyte reactivity (GFAP) and microglial levels (IBA1) were assessed in the striatum (STR), substantia nigra (SN), and prefrontal cortex (PFC) using immunohistochemistry. Key enzymes and receptors involved in catecholaminergic transmission were measured via Western blot within the same regions. Minimal changes in these markers were observed, regardless of initial injury severity. Following mTBI, elevated protein levels of dopamine D1 receptors (DRD1) were noted in the PFC, while msTBI resulted in increased alpha-2A adrenoceptors (ADRA2A) in the STR and decreased dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DβH) in the SN. Neuroinflammatory changes were subtle, with a reduced number of GFAP+ cells in the SN following msTBI. However, considering the potential for neurodegenerative outcomes to manifest decades after injury, longer post-injury intervals may be necessary to observe PD-relevant alterations within these systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ing Chee Wee
- Cognition, Ageing and Neurodegenerative Disease Laboratory, School of Biomedicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia;
| | - Alina Arulsamy
- Neuropharmacology Research Laboratory, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway 47500, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia;
| | - Frances Corrigan
- Head Injury Lab, School of Biomedicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia;
| | - Lyndsey Collins-Praino
- Cognition, Ageing and Neurodegenerative Disease Laboratory, School of Biomedicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia;
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Ratan Y, Rajput A, Pareek A, Pareek A, Jain V, Sonia S, Farooqui Z, Kaur R, Singh G. Advancements in Genetic and Biochemical Insights: Unraveling the Etiopathogenesis of Neurodegeneration in Parkinson's Disease. Biomolecules 2024; 14:73. [PMID: 38254673 PMCID: PMC10813470 DOI: 10.3390/biom14010073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative movement disorder worldwide, which is primarily characterized by motor impairments. Even though multiple hypotheses have been proposed over the decades that explain the pathogenesis of PD, presently, there are no cures or promising preventive therapies for PD. This could be attributed to the intricate pathophysiology of PD and the poorly understood molecular mechanism. To address these challenges comprehensively, a thorough disease model is imperative for a nuanced understanding of PD's underlying pathogenic mechanisms. This review offers a detailed analysis of the current state of knowledge regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of PD, with a particular emphasis on the roles played by gene-based factors in the disease's development and progression. This study includes an extensive discussion of the proteins and mutations of primary genes that are linked to PD, including α-synuclein, GBA1, LRRK2, VPS35, PINK1, DJ-1, and Parkin. Further, this review explores plausible mechanisms for DAergic neural loss, non-motor and non-dopaminergic pathologies, and the risk factors associated with PD. The present study will encourage the related research fields to understand better and analyze the current status of the biochemical mechanisms of PD, which might contribute to the design and development of efficacious and safe treatment strategies for PD in future endeavors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yashumati Ratan
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali 304022, Rajasthan, India; (A.R.); (A.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Aishwarya Rajput
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali 304022, Rajasthan, India; (A.R.); (A.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Ashutosh Pareek
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali 304022, Rajasthan, India; (A.R.); (A.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Aaushi Pareek
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali 304022, Rajasthan, India; (A.R.); (A.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Vivek Jain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mohan Lal Sukhadia University, Udaipur 313001, Rajasthan, India;
| | - Sonia Sonia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India;
| | - Zeba Farooqui
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA;
| | - Ranjeet Kaur
- Adesh Institute of Dental Sciences and Research, Bathinda 151101, Punjab, India;
| | - Gurjit Singh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA;
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Krohn F, Lancini E, Ludwig M, Leiman M, Guruprasath G, Haag L, Panczyszyn J, Düzel E, Hämmerer D, Betts M. Noradrenergic neuromodulation in ageing and disease. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 152:105311. [PMID: 37437752 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
The locus coeruleus (LC) is a small brainstem structure located in the lower pons and is the main source of noradrenaline (NA) in the brain. Via its phasic and tonic firing, it modulates cognition and autonomic functions and is involved in the brain's immune response. The extent of degeneration to the LC in healthy ageing remains unclear, however, noradrenergic dysfunction may contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Despite their differences in progression at later disease stages, the early involvement of the LC may lead to comparable behavioural symptoms such as preclinical sleep problems and neuropsychiatric symptoms as a result of AD and PD pathology. In this review, we draw attention to the mechanisms that underlie LC degeneration in ageing, AD and PD. We aim to motivate future research to investigate how early degeneration of the noradrenergic system may play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of AD and PD which may also be relevant to other neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Krohn
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - E Lancini
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.
| | - M Ludwig
- Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; CBBS Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - M Leiman
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - G Guruprasath
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - L Haag
- Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - J Panczyszyn
- Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - E Düzel
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London UK-WC1E 6BT, UK; CBBS Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - D Hämmerer
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London UK-WC1E 6BT, UK; CBBS Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; Department of Psychology, University of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - M Betts
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia Research (IKND), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany; CBBS Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
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Hosomoto K, Sasaki T, Yasuhara T, Kameda M, Sasada S, Kin I, Kuwahara K, Kawauchi S, Okazaki Y, Yabuno S, Sugahara C, Kawai K, Nagase T, Tanimoto S, Borlongan CV, Date I. Continuous vagus nerve stimulation exerts beneficial effects on rats with experimentally induced Parkinson's disease: Evidence suggesting involvement of a vagal afferent pathway. Brain Stimul 2023; 16:594-603. [PMID: 36914065 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2023.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) exerts neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects in preclinical models of central nervous system disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD). VNS setting applied for experimental models is limited into single-time or intermittent short-duration stimulation. We developed a VNS device which could deliver continuous stimulation for rats. To date, the effects of vagal afferent- or efferent-selective stimulation on PD using continuous electrical stimulation remains to be determined. OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of continuous and selective stimulation of vagal afferent or efferent fiber on Parkinsonian rats. METHODS Rats were divided into 5 group: intact VNS, afferent VNS (left VNS in the presence of left caudal vagotomy), efferent VNS (left VNS in the presence of left rostral vagotomy), sham, vagotomy. Rats underwent the implantation of cuff-electrode on left vagus nerve and 6-hydroxydopamine administration into the left striatum simultaneously. Electrical stimulation was delivered just after 6-OHDA administration and continued for 14 days. In afferent VNS and efferent VNS group, the vagus nerve was dissected at distal or proximal portion of cuff-electrode to imitate the selective stimulation of afferent or efferent vagal fiber respectively. RESULTS Intact VNS and afferent VNS reduced the behavioral impairments in cylinder test and methamphetamine-induced rotation test, which were accompanied by reduced inflammatory glial cells in substantia nigra with the increased density of the rate limiting enzyme in locus coeruleus. In contrast, efferent VNS did not exert any therapeutic effects. CONCLUSION Continuous VNS promoted neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effect in experimental PD, highlighting the crucial role of the afferent vagal pathway in mediating these therapeutic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kakeru Hosomoto
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Sasaki
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan.
| | - Takao Yasuhara
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Masahiro Kameda
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan; Department of Neurosurgery, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
| | - Susumu Sasada
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Ittetsu Kin
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Ken Kuwahara
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Satoshi Kawauchi
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yosuke Okazaki
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Satoru Yabuno
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Chiaki Sugahara
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Koji Kawai
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Takayuki Nagase
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Shun Tanimoto
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
| | - Cesario V Borlongan
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain Repair, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., Tampa, FL, 33611, USA
| | - Isao Date
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Okayama, Japan
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Oshaghi M, Kourosh-Arami M, Roozbehkia M. Role of neurotransmitters in immune-mediated inflammatory disorders: a crosstalk between the nervous and immune systems. Neurol Sci 2023; 44:99-113. [PMID: 36169755 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-022-06413-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs) are a group of common heterogeneous disorders, characterized by an alteration of cellular homeostasis. Primarily, it has been shown that the release and diffusion of neurotransmitters from nervous tissue could result in signaling through lymphocyte cell-surface receptors and the modulation of immune function. This finding led to the idea that the neurotransmitters could serve as immunomodulators. It is now manifested that neurotransmitters can also be released from leukocytes and act as autocrine or paracrine modulators. Increasing data indicate that there is a crosstalk between inflammation and alterations in neurotransmission. The primary goal of this review is to demonstrate how these two pathways may converge at the level of the neuron and glia to involve in IMID. We review the role of neurotransmitters in IMID. The different effects that these compounds exert on a variety of immune cells are also reviewed. Current and future developments in understanding the cross-talk between the immune and nervous systems will undoubtedly identify new ways for treating immune-mediated diseases utilizing agonists or antagonists of neurotransmitter receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojgan Oshaghi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Allied Medical Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoumeh Kourosh-Arami
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Maryam Roozbehkia
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Allied Medical Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Caligiore D, Giocondo F, Silvetti M. The Neurodegenerative Elderly Syndrome (NES) hypothesis: Alzheimer and Parkinson are two faces of the same disease. IBRO Neurosci Rep 2022; 13:330-343. [PMID: 36247524 PMCID: PMC9554826 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2022.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) share monoamine and alpha-synuclein (αSyn) dysfunctions, often beginning years before clinical manifestations onset. The triggers for these impairments and the causes leading these early neurodegenerative processes to become AD or PD remain unclear. We address these issues by proposing a radically new perspective to frame AD and PD: they are different manifestations of one only disease we call "Neurodegenerative Elderly Syndrome (NES)". NES goes through three phases. The seeding stage, which starts years before clinical signs, and where the part of the brain-body affected by the initial αSyn and monoamine dysfunctions, influences the future possible progression of NES towards PD or AD. The compensatory stage, where the clinical symptoms are still silent thanks to compensatory mechanisms keeping monoamine concentrations homeostasis. The bifurcation stage, where NES becomes AD or PD. We present recent literature supporting NES and discuss how this hypothesis could radically change the comprehension of AD and PD comorbidities and the design of novel system-level diagnostic and therapeutic actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Caligiore
- Computational and Translational Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council (CTNLab-ISTC-CNR), Via San Martino della Battaglia 44, Rome 00185, Italy
- AI2Life s.r.l., Innovative Start-Up, ISTC-CNR Spin-Off, Via Sebino 32, Rome 00199, Italy
| | - Flora Giocondo
- Laboratory of Embodied Natural and Artificial Intelligence, Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council (LENAI-ISTC-CNR), Via San Martino della Battaglia 44, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Massimo Silvetti
- Computational and Translational Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council (CTNLab-ISTC-CNR), Via San Martino della Battaglia 44, Rome 00185, Italy
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Halili A. Temporal model for central sensitization: A hypothesis for mechanism and treatment using systemic manual therapy, a focused review. MethodsX 2022; 10:101942. [PMID: 36570602 PMCID: PMC9772546 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2022.101942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this focused review is to develop a consolidated hypothesis as to the causes and mechanisms of central sensitization and a related model for a treatment approach using Systemic Manual Therapy (SMT). The key to understanding central sensitization is a firm grasp on structure and function of the Locus-coeruleus noradrenaline system (LC-NA). This system uses an elaborate switching mechanism to control the level and rate of activation of multiple systems. This review evaluates the mechanisms and temporal relationships behind four components: salient stimuli, threat coding, aberrant afferent input, and oxidative stress. The five-stage temporal model for central sensitization includes phasic activation of the LC-NA system, salient stimuli, threat coding of salient stimuli, central sensitization, and neural degeneration. The three components of treatment include temporarily reducing afferent visceral input, shifting humoral inflammatory activity away from the brain and outside the body, and reducing oxidative stress by making oxygenated blood more available around the LC and other stressed areas in the brain. The SMT protocols that could help in reduction of visceral afferent input are GUOU, Barral and LAUG. Protocols that should shift humoral inflammatory activity away from the brain or completely out of the body include UD and DCS. One protocol that can potentially reduce oxidative stress by making oxygenated blood more available around the LC is CCCV. Future research and hypothesis-testing strategies as well as limitations are further discussed.
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O'Brien JT, Chouliaras L, Sultana J, Taylor JP, Ballard C. RENEWAL: REpurposing study to find NEW compounds with Activity for Lewy body dementia-an international Delphi consensus. Alzheimers Res Ther 2022; 14:169. [PMID: 36369100 PMCID: PMC9650797 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-022-01103-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Drug repositioning and repurposing has proved useful in identifying new treatments for many diseases, which can then rapidly be brought into clinical practice. Currently, there are few effective pharmacological treatments for Lewy body dementia (which includes both dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease dementia) apart from cholinesterase inhibitors. We reviewed several promising compounds that might potentially be disease-modifying agents for Lewy body dementia and then undertook an International Delphi consensus study to prioritise compounds. We identified ambroxol as the top ranked agent for repurposing and identified a further six agents from the classes of tyrosine kinase inhibitors, GLP-1 receptor agonists, and angiotensin receptor blockers that were rated by the majority of our expert panel as justifying a clinical trial. It would now be timely to take forward all these compounds to Phase II or III clinical trials in Lewy body dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T O'Brien
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge, UK.
- Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Leonidas Chouliaras
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge, UK
| | - Janet Sultana
- College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - John-Paul Taylor
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
| | - Clive Ballard
- College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
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Terkelsen MH, Klaestrup IH, Hvingelby V, Lauritsen J, Pavese N, Romero-Ramos M. Neuroinflammation and Immune Changes in Prodromal Parkinson's Disease and Other Synucleinopathies. JOURNAL OF PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2022; 12:S149-S163. [PMID: 35723115 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-223245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Multiple lines of clinical and pre-clinical research support a pathogenic role for neuroinflammation and peripheral immune system dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. In this paper, we have reviewed and summarised the published literature reporting evidence of neuroinflammation and peripheral immune changes in cohorts of patients with isolated REM sleep behaviour disorder and non-manifesting carriers of GBA or LRRK2 gene mutations, who have increased risk for Parkinsonism and synucleinopathies, and could be in the prodromal stage of these conditions. Taken together, the findings of these studies suggest that the early stages of pathology in Parkinsonism involve activation of both the central and peripheral immune systems with significant crosstalk. We consider these findings with respect to those found in patients with clinical Parkinson's disease and discuss their possible pathological roles. Moreover, those factors possibly associated with the immune response, such as the immunomodulatory role of the affected neurotransmitters and the changes in the gut-brain axis, are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ida H Klaestrup
- DANDRITE & Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Victor Hvingelby
- Department of Clinical Medicine - Nuclear Medicine and PET, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Johanne Lauritsen
- DANDRITE & Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Nicola Pavese
- Department of Clinical Medicine - Nuclear Medicine and PET, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Clinical Ageing Research Unit, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Lehrer S, Rheinstein PH. α-synuclein enfolds tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine ß-hydroxylase, potentially reducing dopamine and norepinephrine synthesis. JOURNAL OF PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2022; 13:109-115. [PMID: 36277464 PMCID: PMC9585989 DOI: 10.1007/s42485-022-00088-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) results from degeneration of dopamine and norepinephrine neurons due to α-synuclein aggregates that likely have their origin in the gut. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) catalyses the formation of L-DOPA, the rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of dopamine. A second enzyme, DOPA decarboxylase (DDC), catalyzes the conversion of L-DOPA to dopamine. A third enzyme, dopamine ß-hydroxylase (DBH), catalyzes the conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine. To analyze possible interactions of α-synuclein with TH, DDC and DBH, we performed in silico protein-protein docking. METHODS Protein data bank (pdb) entries were searched on the RCSB Protein Data Bank. We identified four structures that allowed us to examine the relationship of α-synuclein with TH, DDC, and DBH: (1) Human micelle-bound alpha-synuclein, (2) solution structure of the regulatory domain of tyrosine hydroxylase (Rattus norvegicus), (3) crystal structure of human aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (DOPA decarboxylase) in the apo form and (4) crystal structure of human dopamine ß-hydroxylase at 2.9 angstrom resolution. We used the ClusPro server (https://cluspro.org) for protein-protein docking. The protein structures were visualized with PyMOL v 2.3.4. RESULTS α-synuclein partially enfolds tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine ß-hydroxylase, potentially reducing dopamine and norepinephrine synthesis. α-synuclein may dock too far away from DOPA decarboxylase to affect its function directly. CONCLUSIONS Our in silico finding of α-synuclein partly enfolding tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine ß-hydroxylase suggests that α-synuclein docking inhibition could increase dopamine and norepinephrine biosynthesis, ameliorating PD symptoms. Small molecules that bind to α-synuclein have already been identified. Further studies may lead to new small molecule drugs that block α-synuclein enfolding of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine ß-hydroxylase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Lehrer
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Mount Sinai Medical Center, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1236, New York, NY 10029, USA
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11
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Sustained chemogenetic activation of locus coeruleus norepinephrine neurons promotes dopaminergic neuron survival in synucleinopathy. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0263074. [PMID: 35316276 PMCID: PMC8939823 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Dopaminergic neuron degeneration in the midbrain plays a pivotal role in motor symptoms associated with Parkinson's disease. However, non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease and post-mortem histopathology confirm dysfunction in other brain areas, including the locus coeruleus and its associated neurotransmitter norepinephrine. Here, we investigate the role of central norepinephrine-producing neurons in Parkinson's disease by chronically stimulating catecholaminergic neurons in the locus coeruleus using chemogenetic manipulation. We show that norepinephrine neurons send complex axonal projections to the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, confirming physical communication between these regions. Furthermore, we demonstrate that increased activity of norepinephrine neurons is protective against dopaminergic neuronal depletion in human α-syn A53T missense mutation over-expressing mice and prevents motor dysfunction in these mice. Remarkably, elevated norepinephrine neurons action fails to alleviate α-synuclein aggregation and microgliosis in the substantia nigra suggesting the presence of an alternate neuroprotective mechanism. The beneficial effects of high norepinephrine neuron activity might be attributed to the action of norepinephrine on dopaminergic neurons, as recombinant norepinephrine treatment increased primary dopaminergic neuron cultures survival and neurite sprouting. Collectively, our results suggest a neuroprotective mechanism where noradrenergic neurons activity preserves the integrity of dopaminergic neurons, which prevents synucleinopathy-dependent loss of these cells.
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Parrella E, Del Gallo F, Porrini V, Gussago C, Benarese M, Fabene PF, Pizzi M. Age-Dependent Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in the NF-κB/c-Rel Knockout Mouse Model of Parkinson’s Disease. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:831664. [PMID: 35368305 PMCID: PMC8965703 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.831664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-motor symptoms are frequently observed in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and precede the onset of motor deficits by years. Among them, neuropsychiatric symptoms, including anxiety, depression, and apathy, are increasingly considered as a major challenge for patients with PD and their caregivers. We recently reported that mice lacking the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)/c-Rel protein (c-rel–/– mice) develop an age-dependent PD-like pathology and phenotype characterized by the onset of non-motor symptoms, including constipation and hyposmia, starting at 2 months of age, and motor deficits at 18 months. To assess whether c-rel–/– mice also suffer from neuropsychiatric symptoms, in this study we tested different cohorts of wild-type (wt) and c-rel–/– mice at 3, 6, 12, and 18–20 months with different behavioral tests. Mice lacking c-Rel displayed anxiety and depressive-like behavior starting in the premotor phase at 12 months, as indicated by the analysis with the open field (OF) test and the forced swim test with water wheel (FST), respectively. A deficit in the goal-oriented nesting building test was detected at 18–20 months, suggesting apathetic behavior. Taken together, these results indicate that c-rel–/– mice recapitulate the onset and the progression of PD-related neuropsychiatric symptoms. Therefore, this animal model may represent a valuable tool to study the prodromal stage of PD and for testing new therapeutic strategies to alleviate neuropsychiatric symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edoardo Parrella
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
- *Correspondence: Edoardo Parrella,
| | - Federico Del Gallo
- Section of Anatomy and Histology, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Vanessa Porrini
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Cristina Gussago
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Marina Benarese
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Paolo Francesco Fabene
- Section of Anatomy and Histology, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Marina Pizzi
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
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Barut J, Rafa-Zabłocka K, Jurga AM, Bagińska M, Nalepa I, Parlato R, Kreiner G. Genetic lesions of the noradrenergic system trigger induction of oxidative stress and inflammation in the ventral midbrain. Neurochem Int 2022; 155:105302. [PMID: 35150790 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2022.105302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor deficits caused by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and ventral tegmental area (VTA). However, clinical data revealed that not only the dopaminergic system is affected in PD. Postmortem studies showed degeneration of noradrenergic cells in the locus coeruleus (LC) to an even greater extent than that observed in the SN/VTA. Pharmacological models support the concept that modification of noradrenergic transmission can influence the PD-like phenotype induced by neurotoxins. Nevertheless, there are no existing data on animal models regarding the distant impact of noradrenergic degeneration on intact SN/VTA neurons. The aim of this study was to create a transgenic mouse model with endogenously evoked progressive degeneration restricted to noradrenergic neurons and investigate its long-term impact on the dopaminergic system. To this end, we selectively ablated the transcription initiation factor-IA (TIF-IA) in neurons expressing dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) by the Cre-loxP system. This mutation mimics a condition of nucleolar stress affecting neuronal survival. TIF-IADbhCre mice were characterized by selective, progressive degeneration of noradrenergic neurons, followed by phenotypic alterations associated with sympathetic system impairment. Our studies did not show any loss of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive cells in the SN/VTA of mutant mice; however, we observed increased indices of oxidative stress, enhanced markers of glial cell activation, inflammatory processes and isolated degenerating cells positive for FluoroJade C. These results were supported by gene expression profiling of VTA and SN from TIF-IADbhCre mice, revealing that 34 out of 246 significantly regulated genes in the SN/VTA were related to PD. Overall, our results shed new light on the possible negative influence of noradrenergic degeneration on dopaminergic neurons, reinforcing the neuroprotective role of noradrenaline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Barut
- Dept. Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343, Kraków, Smętna 12, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Rafa-Zabłocka
- Dept. Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343, Kraków, Smętna 12, Poland
| | - Agnieszka M Jurga
- Dept. Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343, Kraków, Smętna 12, Poland
| | - Monika Bagińska
- Dept. Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343, Kraków, Smętna 12, Poland
| | - Irena Nalepa
- Dept. Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343, Kraków, Smętna 12, Poland
| | - Rosanna Parlato
- Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Department of Neurology, Mannheim Center for Translational Neuroscience, Medical Faculty Mannheim Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany; Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Heidelberg, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Grzegorz Kreiner
- Dept. Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343, Kraków, Smętna 12, Poland.
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Li L, Fan S, Zhang W, Li D, Yang Z, Zhuang P, Han J, Guo H, Zhang Y. Duzhong Fang Attenuates the POMC-Derived Neuroinflammation in Parkinsonian Mice. J Inflamm Res 2021; 14:3261-3276. [PMID: 34326654 PMCID: PMC8315774 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s316314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuroinflammation and microglia reactivity are now recognized to be features of Parkinson's disease (PD). Thus, microglia phenotype is a potential new target for developing treatments against PD. Duzhong Fang (DZF) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) prescription. The theory of TCM argues that Duzhong Fang, nourishing yin and tonifying yang, may treat PD. However, its modern pharmacological studies and the underlying mechanisms are unclear. METHODS First, MPTP was used to establish a parkinsonian mouse model, and behavioral testing was used to evaluate the locomotor dysfunction. Then, HPLC, immunohistochemical staining, and Western blot assays were performed to evaluate the survival of dopaminergic neurons. Molecular biological and immunofluorescence staining were used to evaluate the neuroinflammation and microglial activation. In addition, RNA-seq transcriptomics was used to analyze differentially expressed genes and verify by RT-PCR. RESULTS In the present study, we first confirmed that DZF can alleviate neuroinflammation and ameliorate dyskinesia in parkinsonian mice. Then, further studies found that DZF can regulate microglial morphology and reactivity and act on the POMC gene. POMC is an upstream target for regulating inflammation and proinflammatory cytokines, and DZF can directly inhibit the POMC level and restore the homeostatic signature of microglia in parkinsonian mice. CONCLUSION This study found that POMC may have a potential role as a therapeutic target for PD. DZF may inhibit neuroinflammation and play an anti-PD effect by down-regulating the expression of POMC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Li
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shanshan Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wenqi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dongna Li
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhen Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
| | - Pengwei Zhuang
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
| | - Juan Han
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hong Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yanjun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, People’s Republic of China
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Korean red ginseng suppresses 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced inflammation in the substantia nigra and colon. Brain Behav Immun 2021; 94:410-423. [PMID: 33662500 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2021.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease involving dopaminergic neuronal death in the substantia nigra (SN); recent studies have shown that interactions between gut and brain play a critical role in the pathogenesis of PD. In this study, the anti-inflammatory effect of Korean red ginseng (KRG) and the changes in gut microbiota were evaluated in a 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced PD mouse model. Male nine-week-old C57BL/6 mice were injected intraperitoneally with 30 mg/kg of MPTP at 24-h intervals for 5 days. Two hours after the daily MPTP injection, the mice were orally administered 100 mg/kg of KRG, which continued for 7 days beyond the MPTP injections, for a total of 12 consecutive days. Eight days after the final KRG administration, the pole and rotarod tests were performed and brain and colon samples of the mice were collected. Dopaminergic neuronal death, activation of microglia and astrocytes, α-synuclein and expressions of inflammatory cytokines and disruption of tight junction were evaluated. In addition, 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing of mouse fecal samples was performed to investigate microbiome changes. KRG treatment prevented MPTP-induced behavioral impairment, dopaminergic neuronal death, activation of microglia and astrocytes in the nigrostriatal pathway, disruption of tight junction and the increase in α-synuclein, interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α expression in the colon. The 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that MPTP altered the number of bacterial species and their relative abundances, which were partially suppressed by KRG treatment. Especially, KRG suppressed the abundance of the inflammation-related phylum Verrucomicrobia and genera Ruminococcus and Akkermansia (especially Akkermansia muciniphila), and elevated the abundance of Eubacterium, which produces the anti-inflammatory substances. These findings suggest that KRG prevents MPTP-induced dopaminergic neuronal death, activation of microglia and astrocytes, and accumulation of α-synuclein in the SN, and the regulation of inflammation-related factors in the colon may influence the effect.
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16
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Han NR, Kim YK, Ahn S, Hwang TY, Lee H, Park HJ. A Comprehensive Phenotype of Non-motor Impairments and Distribution of Alpha-Synuclein Deposition in Parkinsonism-Induced Mice by a Combination Injection of MPTP and Probenecid. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 12:599045. [PMID: 33519420 PMCID: PMC7838388 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.599045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by non-motor symptoms as well as motor deficits. The non-motor symptoms rarely appear individually and occur simultaneously with motor deficits or independently. However, a comprehensive research on the non-motor symptoms using an experimental model of PD remains poorly understood. The aim of the current study is to establish a chronic mouse model of PD mimicking the comprehensive non-motor symptoms of human PD by injection of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and probenecid (MPTP/p). The non-motor and motor symptoms were evaluated by performing buried food, short-term olfactory memory, hot plate, open field, tail suspension, Y maze, novel object recognition, bead expulsion, one-h stool collection, rotarod, rearing, catalepsy, and akinesia tests after 10 injections of MPTP/p into mice. The expression levels of α-synuclein, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) or DJ-1 were analyzed by Western blotting or immunostaining. MPTP/p-treated mice achieved to reproduce the key features of non-motor symptoms including olfactory deficit, thermal hyperalgesia, anxiety, depression, cognitive decline, and gastrointestinal dysfunction in addition to motor deficits. The MPTP/p-treated mice also showed the high levels of α-synuclein and low levels of TH and DJ-1 in striatum, substantia nigra, olfactory bulb, hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, locus coeruleus, or colon. In addition, the expression levels of phosphorylated-α-synuclein and GFAP were elevated in the striatum and substantia nigra in the MPTP/p-treated mice. Taken together, our study clarifies that the chronic MPTP/p-treated mice have a variety of non-motor dysfunctions as well as motor abnormalities by α-synuclein overexpression and dopaminergic depletion. Therefore, the study of comprehensive phenotypes of non-motor symptoms in one PD model would advance in-depth understandings of neuropathological alternations and contribute to future strategies for PD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na-Ra Han
- Integrative Parkinson's Disease Research Group, Acupuncture and Meridian Science Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.,Department of Anatomy & Information Sciences, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Yu-Kang Kim
- Integrative Parkinson's Disease Research Group, Acupuncture and Meridian Science Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.,Department of Anatomy & Information Sciences, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sora Ahn
- Integrative Parkinson's Disease Research Group, Acupuncture and Meridian Science Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Tae-Yeon Hwang
- Integrative Parkinson's Disease Research Group, Acupuncture and Meridian Science Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.,Department of Meridian & Acupoints, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyejung Lee
- Department of Meridian & Acupoints, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hi-Joon Park
- Integrative Parkinson's Disease Research Group, Acupuncture and Meridian Science Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.,Department of Anatomy & Information Sciences, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
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17
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van Vuuren MJ, Nell TA, Carr JA, Kell DB, Pretorius E. Iron Dysregulation and Inflammagens Related to Oral and Gut Health Are Central to the Development of Parkinson's Disease. Biomolecules 2020; 11:E30. [PMID: 33383805 PMCID: PMC7823713 DOI: 10.3390/biom11010030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal lesions in Parkinson's disease (PD) are commonly associated with α-synuclein (α-Syn)-induced cell damage that are present both in the central and peripheral nervous systems of patients, with the enteric nervous system also being especially vulnerable. Here, we bring together evidence that the development and presence of PD depends on specific sets of interlinking factors that include neuroinflammation, systemic inflammation, α-Syn-induced cell damage, vascular dysfunction, iron dysregulation, and gut and periodontal dysbiosis. We argue that there is significant evidence that bacterial inflammagens fuel this systemic inflammation, and might be central to the development of PD. We also discuss the processes whereby bacterial inflammagens may be involved in causing nucleation of proteins, including of α-Syn. Lastly, we review evidence that iron chelation, pre-and probiotics, as well as antibiotics and faecal transplant treatment might be valuable treatments in PD. A most important consideration, however, is that these therapeutic options need to be validated and tested in randomized controlled clinical trials. However, targeting underlying mechanisms of PD, including gut dysbiosis and iron toxicity, have potentially opened up possibilities of a wide variety of novel treatments, which may relieve the characteristic motor and nonmotor deficits of PD, and may even slow the progression and/or accompanying gut-related conditions of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marthinus Janse van Vuuren
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1 Matieland, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa; (M.J.v.V.); (T.A.N.)
| | - Theodore Albertus Nell
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1 Matieland, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa; (M.J.v.V.); (T.A.N.)
| | - Jonathan Ambrose Carr
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1 Matieland, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa
| | - Douglas B. Kell
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1 Matieland, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa; (M.J.v.V.); (T.A.N.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Centre for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Building 220, Chemitorvet 200, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Etheresia Pretorius
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1 Matieland, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa; (M.J.v.V.); (T.A.N.)
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18
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Locus Coeruleus Modulates Neuroinflammation in Parkinsonism and Dementia. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21228630. [PMID: 33207731 PMCID: PMC7697920 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21228630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Locus Coeruleus (LC) is the main noradrenergic nucleus of the central nervous system, and its neurons widely innervate the whole brain. LC is severely degenerated both in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and in Parkinson’s disease (PD), years before the onset of clinical symptoms, through mechanisms that differ among the two disorders. Several experimental studies have shown that noradrenaline modulates neuroinflammation, mainly by acting on microglia/astrocytes function. In the present review, after a brief introduction on the anatomy and physiology of LC, we provide an overview of experimental data supporting a pathogenetic role of LC degeneration in AD and PD. Then, we describe in detail experimental data, obtained in vitro and in vivo in animal models, which support a potential role of neuroinflammation in such a link, and the specific molecules (i.e., released cytokines, glial receptors, including pattern recognition receptors and others) whose expression is altered by LC degeneration and might play a key role in AD/PD pathogenesis. New imaging and biochemical tools have recently been developed in humans to estimate in vivo the integrity of LC, the degree of neuroinflammation, and pathology AD/PD biomarkers; it is auspicable that these will allow in the near future to test the existence of a link between LC-neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration directly in patients.
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19
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Butkovich LM, Houser MC, Chalermpalanupap T, Porter-Stransky KA, Iannitelli AF, Boles JS, Lloyd GM, Coomes AS, Eidson LN, De Sousa Rodrigues ME, Oliver DL, Kelly SD, Chang J, Bengoa-Vergniory N, Wade-Martins R, Giasson BI, Joers V, Weinshenker D, Tansey MG. Transgenic Mice Expressing Human α-Synuclein in Noradrenergic Neurons Develop Locus Ceruleus Pathology and Nonmotor Features of Parkinson's Disease. J Neurosci 2020; 40:7559-7576. [PMID: 32868457 PMCID: PMC7511194 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1468-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Degeneration of locus ceruleus (LC) neurons and dysregulation of noradrenergic signaling are ubiquitous features of Parkinson's disease (PD). The LC is among the first brain regions affected by α-synuclein (asyn) pathology, yet how asyn affects these neurons remains unclear. LC-derived norepinephrine (NE) can stimulate neuroprotective mechanisms and modulate immune cells, while dysregulation of NE neurotransmission may exacerbate disease progression, particularly nonmotor symptoms, and contribute to the chronic neuroinflammation associated with PD pathology. Although transgenic mice overexpressing asyn have previously been developed, transgene expression is usually driven by pan-neuronal promoters and thus has not been selectively targeted to LC neurons. Here we report a novel transgenic mouse expressing human wild-type asyn under control of the noradrenergic-specific dopamine β-hydroxylase promoter (DBH-hSNCA). These mice developed oligomeric and conformation-specific asyn in LC neurons, alterations in hippocampal and LC microglial abundance, upregulated GFAP expression, degeneration of LC fibers, decreased striatal DA metabolism, and age-dependent behaviors reminiscent of nonmotor symptoms of PD that were rescued by adrenergic receptor antagonists. These mice provide novel insights into how asyn pathology affects LC neurons and how central noradrenergic dysfunction may contribute to early PD pathophysiology.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT ɑ-Synuclein (asyn) pathology and loss of neurons in the locus ceruleus (LC) are two of the most ubiquitous neuropathologic features of Parkinson's disease (PD). Dysregulated norepinephrine (NE) neurotransmission is associated with the nonmotor symptoms of PD, including sleep disturbances, emotional changes such as anxiety and depression, and cognitive decline. Importantly, the loss of central NE may contribute to the chronic inflammation in, and progression of, PD. We have generated a novel transgenic mouse expressing human asyn in LC neurons to investigate how increased asyn expression affects the function of the central noradrenergic transmission and associated behaviors. We report cytotoxic effects of oligomeric and conformation-specific asyn, astrogliosis, LC fiber degeneration, disruptions in striatal dopamine metabolism, and age-dependent alterations in nonmotor behaviors without inclusions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Termpanit Chalermpalanupap
- Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Kirsten A Porter-Stransky
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Homer Stryker M.D. School of Medicine, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008
| | - Alexa F Iannitelli
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Jake S Boles
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610
| | - Grace M Lloyd
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610
| | - Alexandra S Coomes
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610
| | - Lori N Eidson
- Department of Physiology, Emory School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | | | | | - Sean D Kelly
- Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Jianjun Chang
- Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Nora Bengoa-Vergniory
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Wade-Martins
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, United Kingdom
| | - Benoit I Giasson
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610
| | - Valerie Joers
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610
| | - David Weinshenker
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Malú Gámez Tansey
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610
- Susan and Normal Fixel Chair in Parkinson's Disease, Normal Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, University of Florida Health, Gainesville, Florida 32610
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Heras-Garvin A, Stefanova N. From Synaptic Protein to Prion: The Long and Controversial Journey of α-Synuclein. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2020; 12:584536. [PMID: 33071772 PMCID: PMC7536368 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2020.584536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Since its discovery 30 years ago, α-synuclein (α-syn) has been one of the most studied proteins in the field of neuroscience. Dozens of groups worldwide have tried to reveal not only its role in the CNS but also in other organs. α-syn has been linked to several processes essential in brain homeostasis such as neurotransmitter release, synaptic function, and plasticity. However, despite the efforts made in this direction, the main function of α-syn is still unknown. Moreover, α-syn became a protein of interest for neurologists and neuroscientists when mutations in its gene were found associated with Parkinson's disease (PD) and even more when α-syn protein deposits were observed in the brain of PD, dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and multiple system atrophy (MSA) patients. At present, the abnormal accumulation of α-syn constitutes one of the pathological hallmarks of these disorders, also referred to as α-synucleinopathies, and it is used for post-mortem diagnostic criteria. Whether α-syn aggregation is cause or consequence of the pathogenic events underlying α-synucleinopathies remains unclear and under discussion. Recently, different in vitro and in vivo studies have shown the ability of pathogenic α-syn to spread between cells, not only within the CNS but also from peripheral locations such as the gut, salivary glands, and through the olfactory network into the CNS, inducing abnormal misfolding of endogenous α-syn and leading to neurodegeneration and motor and cognitive impairment in animal models. Thus, it has been suggested that α-syn should be considered a prion protein. Here we present an update of what we know about α-syn function, aggregation and spreading, and its role in neurodegeneration. We also discuss the rationale and findings supporting the hypothetical prion nature of α-syn, its weaknesses, and future perspectives for research and the development of disease-modifying therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Heras-Garvin
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Nadia Stefanova
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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22
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Cao B, Chen X, Zhang L, Wei Q, Liu H, Feng W, Chen Y, Shang H. Elevated Percentage of CD3 + T-Cells and CD4 +/CD8 + Ratios in Multiple System Atrophy Patients. Front Neurol 2020; 11:658. [PMID: 32733370 PMCID: PMC7358310 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
α-synuclein is involved in the pathogenesis of multiple system atrophy (MSA) and can be regulated by peripheral immune activation (PIA). We aimed to clarify the correlations between PIA and the prevalence of MSA and to analyze the role of PIA in the progression of the disease. A total of 321 patients with probable MSA and 321 age- and gender-matched healthy controls were included in this study. Lymphocyte subsets, including CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ cells, and the levels of immunoglobulins IgG, IgM, and IgA were evaluated. The proportions of CD3+ and CD4+ T-lymphocytes were significantly increased in MSA patients compared with those of normal controls. In addition, the ratio of CD4+ to CD8+ cells was significantly increased in male MSA patients and IgG concentrations were decreased in female MSA patients. Furthermore, the concentrations of IgM in female MSA patients were dynamically different at various disease stages and gradually decreased from the early stage until the end stage of the disease (p = 0.029). Other detected immunological indexes were not significantly different during the entire disease course. In this study, high proportions of CD3+ and CD4+ T-lymphocytes and decreased IgG levels were associated with an increased risk for MSA in a Chinese patient population. In addition, PIA may be involved in the progression of MSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei Cao
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xueping Chen
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Lingyu Zhang
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qianqian Wei
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hui Liu
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Weihua Feng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yongping Chen
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Huifang Shang
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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Sun C, Yu W, Zhao Z, Song C, Liu Y, Jia G, Wang X, Liu Y. Peripheral Humoral Immune Response Is Associated With the Non-motor Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:1057. [PMID: 31649497 PMCID: PMC6795918 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Non-motor symptoms are common in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and can even be used as part of the supportive criteria for diagnosis. Chronic inflammation is involved in every stage of PD. Disorders of the immune system affect the peripheral blood. Whether the humoral immune response is associated with the non-motor symptoms of PD remains unknown. Methods Mann–Whitney tests and Bonferroni correction were used to compare the serum levels of IgG, IgA, IgM, C3, and C4 between 180 sporadic PD patients and 187 healthy controls. Multiple regression models were conducted to assess the associations among these indicators of humoral immunity and the clinical features of PD patients. Results Male PD patients had lower levels of C3 and C4 than healthy controls [0.87 (0.22) vs. 0.96 (0.19); 0.19 (0.06) vs. 0.22 (0.07), respectively, Pc < 0.01] and lower levels of C3 than female PD patients [0.87 (0.22) vs. 1.02 (0.23), Pc < 0.01]. Patients suffering from attention/memory problems had significantly lower levels of IgA and C3 than those without these problems [1.92 (1.21) vs. 2.57 (0.76); 0.89 (0.24) vs. 0.97 (0.24), respectively, Pc < 0.04]. In addition, serum IgG levels were negatively associated with mood/cognition problem scores and were positively associated with gastrointestinal tract problem scores (adjusted R2 = 0.063, F = 1.805, p = 0.038). Serum C3 levels were negatively associated with being male, age, and sleep/fatigue problem scores (adjusted R2 = 0.123, F = 2.678, p = 0.001). Conclusion The peripheral humoral immune response might be correlated with the non-motor symptoms of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Congcong Sun
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Wenfei Yu
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Zhenxiang Zhao
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Chengyuan Song
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Ying Liu
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Guoyong Jia
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Xingbang Wang
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yiming Liu
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China
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24
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Lamkin DM, Srivastava S, Bradshaw KP, Betz JE, Muy KB, Wiese AM, Yee SK, Waggoner RM, Arevalo JMG, Yoon AJ, Faull KF, Sloan EK, Cole SW. C/EBPβ regulates the M2 transcriptome in β-adrenergic-stimulated macrophages. Brain Behav Immun 2019; 80:839-848. [PMID: 31132458 PMCID: PMC6660400 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2019.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
At the M2 terminal of the macrophage activation spectrum, expression of genes is regulated by transcription factors that include STAT6, CREB, and C/EBPβ. Signaling through β-adrenergic receptors drives M2 activation of macrophages, but little is known about the transcription factors involved. In the present study, we found that C/EBPβ regulates the signaling pathway between β-adrenergic stimulation and expression of Arg1 and several other specific genes in the greater M2 transcriptome. β-adrenergic signaling induced Cebpb gene expression relatively early with a peak at 1 h post-stimulation, followed by peak Arg1 gene expression at 8 h. C/EBPβ transcription factor activity was elevated at the enhancer region for Arg 1 at both 4 and 8 h after stimulation but not near the more proximal promoter region. Knockdown of Cebpb suppressed the β-adrenergic-induced peak in Cebpb gene expression as well as subsequent accumulation of C/EBPβ protein in the nucleus, which resulted in suppression of β-adrenergic-induced Arg1 gene expression. Analysis of genome-wide transcriptional profiles identified 20 additional M2 genes that followed the same pattern of regulation by β-adrenergic- and C/EBPβ-signaling. Promoter-based bioinformatic analysis confirmed enrichment of binding motifs for C/EBPβ transcription factor across these M2 genes. These findings pinpoint a mechanism that may be targeted to redirect the deleterious influence of β-adrenergic signaling on macrophage involvement in M2-related diseases such as cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald M Lamkin
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States; Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States; Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States.
| | - Shreyesi Srivastava
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
| | - Karen P Bradshaw
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
| | - Jenna E Betz
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
| | - Kevin B Muy
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
| | - Anna M Wiese
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
| | - Shelby K Yee
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
| | - Rebecca M Waggoner
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
| | - Jesusa M G Arevalo
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States; Divison of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
| | - Alexander J Yoon
- Pasarow Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
| | - Kym F Faull
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States; Pasarow Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
| | - Erica K Sloan
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States; Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States; Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Division of Cancer Surgery, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victorian Comprehensive Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC 3002, Australia
| | - Steve W Cole
- Norman Cousins Center for PNI, Semel Institute for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States; Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States; Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States; Divison of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, United States
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25
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Beta2-Adrenoceptor Agonists in Parkinson’s Disease and Other Synucleinopathies. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2019; 15:74-81. [DOI: 10.1007/s11481-018-09831-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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