Converging and Differential Brain Phospholipid Dysregulation in the Pathogenesis of Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Alzheimer's Disease

TET1 displays catalytic and non-catalytic functions in the adult mouse cortex

TET1/2/3 dioxygenases iteratively demethylate 5-methylcytosine, beginning with the formation of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). The post-mitotic brain maintains higher levels of 5hmC than most peripheral tissues, and TET1 ablation studies have underscored the critical role of TET1 in brain physiology. However, deletion of Tet1 precludes the disentangling of the catalytic and non-catalytic functions of TET1. Here, we dissect these functions of TET1 by comparing adult cortex of Tet1 wildtype (Tet1 WT), a novel Tet1 catalytically dead mutant (Tet1 HxD), and Tet1 knockout (Tet1 KO) mice. Using DNA methylation array, we uncover that Tet1 HxD and KO mutations perturb the methylation status of distinct subsets of CpG sites. Gene ontology (GO) analysis on specific differential 5hmC regions indicates that TET1's catalytic activity is linked to neuronal-specific functions. RNA-Seq further shows that Tet1 mutations predominantly impact the genes that are associated with alternative splicing. Lastly, we performed High-performance Liquid Chromatography Mass-Spectrometry lipidomics on WT and mutant cortices and uncover accumulation of lysophospholipids lysophosphatidylethanolamine and lysophosphatidylcholine in Tet1 HxD cortex. In summary, we show that Tet1 HxD does not completely phenocopy Tet1 KO, providing evidence that TET1 modulates distinct cortical functions through its catalytic and non-catalytic roles.

Spatial lipidomics maps brain alterations associated with mild traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a global public health problem with 50-60 million incidents per year, most of which are considered mild (mTBI) and many of these repetitive (rmTBI). Despite their massive implications, the pathologies of mTBI and rmTBI are not fully understood, with a paucity of information on brain lipid dysregulation following mild injury event(s). To gain more insight on mTBI and rmTBI pathology, a non-targeted spatial lipidomics workflow utilizing high resolution mass spectrometry imaging was developed to map brain region-specific lipid alterations in rats following injury. Discriminant multivariate models were created for regions of interest including the hippocampus, cortex, and corpus callosum to pinpoint lipid species that differentiated between injured and sham animals. A multivariate model focused on the hippocampus region differentiated injured brain tissues with an area under the curve of 0.99 using only four lipid species. Lipid classes that were consistently discriminant included polyunsaturated fatty acid-containing phosphatidylcholines (PC), lysophosphatidylcholines (LPC), LPC-plasmalogens (LPC-P) and PC potassium adducts. Many of the polyunsaturated fatty acid-containing PC and LPC-P selected have never been previously reported as altered in mTBI. The observed lipid alterations indicate that neuroinflammation and oxidative stress are important pathologies that could serve to explain cognitive deficits associated with rmTBI. Therapeutics which target or attenuate these pathologies may be beneficial to limit persistent damage following a mild brain injury event.

Glycerophospholipid dysregulation after traumatic brain injury

Brain tissue is highly enriched in lipids, the majority of which are glycerophospholipids. Glycerophospholipids are the major constituents of cellular membranes and play an important role in maintaining integrity and function of cellular and subcellular structures. Any changes in glycerophospholipid homeostasis can adversely affect brain functions. Traumatic brain injury (TBI), an acquired injury caused by the impact of external forces to the brain, triggers activation of secondary biochemical events that include perturbation of lipid homeostasis. Several studies have demonstrated glycerophospholipid dysregulation in the brain and circulation after TBI. This includes spatial and temporal changes in abundance and distribution of glycerophospholipids in the injured brain. This is at least in part mediated by TBI-induced oxidative stress and by activation of lipid metabolism pathways involved in tissue repairing. In this review, we discuss current advances in understanding of the mechanisms and implications of glycerophospholipid dysregulation following TBI.

Serum metabolism alteration behind different etiology, diagnosis, and prognosis of disorders of consciousness

BACKGROUND

Patients with disorders of consciousness (DoC) exhibit varied revival outcomes based on different etiologies and diagnoses, the mechanisms of which remain largely unknown. The fluctuating clinical presentations in DoC pose challenges in accurately assessing consciousness levels and prognoses, often leading to misdiagnoses. There is an urgent need for a deeper understanding of the physiological changes in DoC and the development of objective diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers to improve treatment guidance.

METHODS

To explore biomarkers and understand the biological processes, we conducted a comprehensive untargeted metabolomic analysis on serum samples from 48 patients with DoC. Patients were categorized based on etiology (TBI vs. non-TBI), CRS-R scores, and prognosis. Advanced analytical techniques, including PCA and OPLS-DA models, were employed to identify differential metabolites.

RESULTS

Our analysis revealed a distinct separation in metabolomic profiles among the different groups. The primary differential metabolites distinguishing patients with varying etiologies were predominantly phospholipids, with a notable decrease in glycerophospholipids observed in the TBI group. Patients with higher CRS-R scores exhibited a pattern of impaired carbohydrate metabolism coupled with enhanced lipid metabolism. Notably, serum concentrations of both LysoPE and PE were reduced in patients with improved outcomes, suggesting their potential as prognostic biomarkers.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study underscores the critical role of phospholipid metabolism in the brain's metabolic alterations in patients with DoC. It identifies key biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis, offering insights that could lead to novel therapeutic targets. These findings highlight the value of metabolomic profiling in understanding and potentially treating DoC.

Spatial Lipidomics Maps Brain Alterations Associated with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a global public health problem with 50-60 million incidents per year, most of which are considered mild (mTBI) and many of these repetitive (rmTBI). Despite their massive implications, the pathologies of mTBI and rmTBI are not fully understood, with a paucity of information on brain lipid dysregulation following mild injury event(s). To gain more insight on mTBI and rmTBI pathology, a non-targeted spatial lipidomics workflow utilizing ultrahigh resolution mass spectrometry imaging was developed to map brain region-specific lipid alterations in rats following injury. Discriminant multivariate models were created for regions of interest including the hippocampus, cortex, and corpus callosum to pinpoint lipid species that differentiated between injured and sham animals. A multivariate model focused on the hippocampus region differentiated injured brain tissues with an area under the curve of 0.994 using only four lipid species. Lipid classes that were consistently discriminant included polyunsaturated fatty acid-containing phosphatidylcholines (PC), lysophosphatidylcholines (LPC), LPC-plasmalogens (LPC-P) and PC potassium adducts. Many of the polyunsaturated fatty acid-containing PC and LPC-P selected have never been previously reported as altered in mTBI. The observed lipid alterations indicate that neuroinflammation, oxidative stress and disrupted sodium-potassium pumps are important pathologies that could serve to explain cognitive deficits associated with rmTBI. Therapeutics which target or attenuate these pathologies may be beneficial to limit persistent damage following a mild brain injury event.

Comparing Brain and Blood Lipidome Changes following Single and Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Rats

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health concern in the United States and globally, contributing to disability and long-term neurological problems. Lipid dysregulation after TBI is underexplored, and a better understanding of lipid turnover and degradation could point to novel biomarker candidates and therapeutic targets. Here, we investigated overlapping lipidome changes in the brain and blood using a data-driven discovery approach to understand lipid alterations in the brain and serum compartments acutely following mild TBI (mTBI) and the potential efflux of brain lipids to peripheral blood. The cortices and sera from male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were analyzed via ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS) in both positive and negative ion modes following single and repetitive closed head impacts. The overlapping lipids in the data sets were identified with an in-house data dictionary for investigating lipid class changes. MS-based lipid profiling revealed overall increased changes in the serum compartment, while the brain lipids primarily showed decreased changes. Interestingly, there were prominent alterations in the sphingolipid class in the brain and blood compartments after single and repetitive injury, which may suggest efflux of brain sphingolipids into the blood after TBI. Genetic algorithms were used for predictive panel selection to classify injured and control samples with high sensitivity and specificity. These overlapping lipid panels primarily mapped to the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway with Benjamini-Hochberg adjusted q-values less than 0.05. Collectively, these results detail overlapping lipidome changes following mTBI in the brain and blood compartments, increasing our understanding of TBI-related lipid dysregulation while identifying novel biomarker candidates.

Brain areas lipidomics in female transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Lipids are the major component of the brain with important structural and functional properties. Lipid disruption could play a relevant role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Some brain lipidomic studies showed significant differences compared to controls, but few studies have focused on different brain areas related to AD. Furthermore, AD is more prevalent in females, but there is a lack of studies focusing on this sex. This work aims to perform a lipidomic study in selected brain areas (cerebellum, amygdala, hippocampus, entire cortex) from wild-type (WT, n = 10) and APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic (TG, n = 10) female mice of 5 months of age, as a model of early AD, to identify alterations in lipid composition. A lipidomic mass spectrometry-based method was optimized and applied to brain tissue. As result, some lipids showed statistically significant differences between mice groups in cerebellum (n = 68), amygdala (n = 49), hippocampus (n = 48), and the cortex (n = 22). In addition, some lipids (n = 15) from the glycerolipid, phospholipid, and sphingolipid families were statistically significant in several brain areas simultaneously between WT and TG. A selection of lipid variables was made to develop a multivariate approach to assess their discriminant potential, showing high diagnostic indexes, especially in cerebellum and amygdala (sensitivity 70-100%, sensibility 80-100%).

Lipidomic profiling study on neurobehavior toxicity in zebrafish treated with aflatoxin B1

Mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has been proven to cause neurotoxicity, but its potential interference with the normal function of brain tissue is not fully defined. As the indispensable role of lipids in maintaining the normal function of brain tissue, the aim of this study is to clarify the effect of AFB1 short-term (7 days) exposure on brain tissue from the perspective of lipid metabolism. In this study, zebrafish were exposed to two concentrations (5, 20 μg/L). Through quantitative analysis of AFB1, the detection of AFB1 in zebrafish brain tissue was discovered for the first time, combined with the changes in zebrafish neurobehavior, the occurrence of brain injury was deduced. Subsequently, 1734 lipids in zebrafish brain tissue were mapped using ion mobility time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-IMS-MS), which has great advantages in lipid detection. Comparative analysis of the abnormal lipid metabolism in zebrafish brain revealed 114 significantly changed lipids, mainly involving two pathways of sphingolipid metabolism and fatty acid degradation. This study discovered the detection of AFB1 in the brain and revealed a potential link between AFB1-induced behavioral abnormalities and lipid metabolism disorders in brain tissue, providing reliable evidence for elucidating the neurotoxicity of AFB1.

Raman Spectroscopy Spectral Fingerprints of Biomarkers of Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects millions of people of all ages around the globe. TBI is notoriously hard to diagnose at the point of care, resulting in incorrect patient management, avoidable death and disability, long-term neurodegenerative complications, and increased costs. It is vital to develop timely, alternative diagnostics for TBI to assist triage and clinical decision-making, complementary to current techniques such as neuroimaging and cognitive assessment. These could deliver rapid, quantitative TBI detection, by obtaining information on biochemical changes from patient's biofluids. If available, this would reduce mis-triage, save healthcare providers costs (both over- and under-triage are expensive) and improve outcomes by guiding early management. Herein, we utilize Raman spectroscopy-based detection to profile a panel of 18 raw (human, animal, and synthetically derived) TBI-indicative biomarkers (N-acetyl-aspartic acid (NAA), Ganglioside, Glutathione (GSH), Neuron Specific Enolase (NSE), Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP), Ubiquitin C-terminal Hydrolase L1 (UCHL1), Cholesterol, D-Serine, Sphingomyelin, Sulfatides, Cardiolipin, Interleukin-6 (IL-6), S100B, Galactocerebroside, Beta-D-(+)-Glucose, Myo-Inositol, Interleukin-18 (IL-18), Neurofilament Light Chain (NFL)) and their aqueous solution. The subsequently derived unique spectral reference library, exploiting four excitation lasers of 514, 633, 785, and 830 nm, will aid the development of rapid, non-destructive, and label-free spectroscopy-based neuro-diagnostic technologies. These biomolecules, released during cellular damage, provide additional means of diagnosing TBI and assessing the severity of injury. The spectroscopic temporal profiles of the studied biofluid neuro-markers are classed according to their acute, sub-acute, and chronic temporal injury phases and we have further generated detailed peak assignment tables for each brain-specific biomolecule within each injury phase. The intensity ratios of significant peaks, yielding the combined unique spectroscopic barcode for each brain-injury marker, are compared to assess variance between lasers, with the smallest variance found for UCHL1 (σ2 = 0.000164) and the highest for sulfatide (σ2 = 0.158). Overall, this work paves the way for defining and setting the most appropriate diagnostic time window for detection following brain injury. Further rapid and specific detection of these biomarkers, from easily accessible biofluids, would not only enable the triage of TBI, predict outcomes, indicate the progress of recovery, and save healthcare providers costs, but also cement the potential of Raman-based spectroscopy as a powerful tool for neurodiagnostics.

Alzheimer's-Associated Upregulation of Mitochondria-Associated ER Membranes After Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can lead to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) through mechanisms that remain incompletely characterized. Similar to AD, TBI models present with cellular metabolic alterations and modulated cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP). Specifically, AD and TBI tissues display increases in amyloid-β as well as its precursor, the APP C-terminal fragment of 99 a.a. (C99). Our recent data in cell models of AD indicate that C99, due to its affinity for cholesterol, induces the formation of transient lipid raft domains in the ER known as mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes ("MAM" domains). The formation of these domains recruits and activates specific lipid metabolic enzymes that regulate cellular cholesterol trafficking and sphingolipid turnover. Increased C99 levels in AD cell models promote MAM formation and significantly modulate cellular lipid homeostasis. Here, these phenotypes were recapitulated in the controlled cortical impact (CCI) model of TBI in adult mice. Specifically, the injured cortex and hippocampus displayed significant increases in C99 and MAM activity, as measured by phospholipid synthesis, sphingomyelinase activity and cholesterol turnover. In addition, our cell type-specific lipidomics analyses revealed significant changes in microglial lipid composition that are consistent with the observed alterations in MAM-resident enzymes. Altogether, we propose that alterations in the regulation of MAM and relevant lipid metabolic pathways could contribute to the epidemiological connection between TBI and AD.

Acute effects of single and repeated mild traumatic brain injury on levels of neurometabolites, lipids, and mitochondrial function in male rats

Introduction

Mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBIs) are the most common form of acquired brain injury. Symptoms of mTBI are thought to be associated with a neuropathological cascade, potentially involving the dysregulation of neurometabolites, lipids, and mitochondrial bioenergetics. Such alterations may play a role in the period of enhanced vulnerability that occurs after mTBI, such that a second mTBI will exacerbate neuropathology. However, it is unclear whether mTBI-induced alterations in neurometabolites and lipids that are involved in energy metabolism and other important cellular functions are exacerbated by repeat mTBI, and if such alterations are associated with mitochondrial dysfunction.

Methods

In this experiment, using a well-established awake-closed head injury (ACHI) paradigm to model mTBI, male rats were subjected to a single injury, or five injuries delivered 1 day apart, and injuries were confirmed with a beam-walk task and a video observation protocol. Abundance of several neurometabolites was evaluated 24 h post-final injury in the ipsilateral and contralateral hippocampus using in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS), and mitochondrial bioenergetics were evaluated 30 h post-final injury, or at 24 h in place of 1H-MRS, in the rostral half of the ipsilateral hippocampus. Lipidomic evaluations were conducted in the ipsilateral hippocampus and cortex.

Results

We found that behavioral deficits in the beam task persisted 1- and 4 h after the final injury in rats that received repetitive mTBIs, and this was paralleled by an increase and decrease in hippocampal glutamine and glucose, respectively, whereas a single mTBI had no effect on sensorimotor and metabolic measurements. No group differences were observed in lipid levels and mitochondrial bioenergetics in the hippocampus, although some lipids were altered in the cortex after repeated mTBI.

Discussion

The decrease in performance in sensorimotor tests and the presence of more neurometabolic and lipidomic abnormalities, after repeated but not singular mTBI, indicates that multiple concussions in short succession can have cumulative effects. Further preclinical research efforts are required to understand the underlying mechanisms that drive these alterations to establish biomarkers and inform treatment strategies to improve patient outcomes.

Protective effects of CCL01 against Aβ-induced neurotoxicity in 5xFAD transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common dementia characterized by the excessive accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) and tau aggregates, as well as neuronal damage and neuroinflammation. Metabolic disruption in AD has been noticed because metabolite alterations closely correlate with Aβ neuropathology and behavioral phenotypes. Accordingly, controlling various neuropathological processes and metabolic disruption is an efficient therapeutic strategy for AD treatment. In this study, we evaluated the effects of a combination of Cuscuta seeds and Lactobacillus paracasei NK112 (CCL01) on AD neuropathology and altered metabolism in five familial AD (5xFAD) transgenic mice and neuronal cell cultures. First, we observed that CCL01 exerted neuroprotective effects in HT22 hippocampal neurons and primary cultured neurons. CCL01 ameliorated memory decline and protected synapses and neuronal survival in 5xFAD mice. These effects were related to the inhibition of tau phosphorylation. CCL01 also inhibited the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling and neuroinflammatory processes. Moreover, the metabolite profile-particularly characterized by altered phospholipid metabolism-was significantly changed in the 5xFAD group, while CCL01 partly restored the alteration. Lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPC), the levels of which were higher in the brains of 5xFAD mice, exerted neurotoxicity in vitro, whereas CCL01 protected neurons from lysoPC-induced toxicity by regulating MAPK signaling. Additionally, CCL01 administration reduced gut inflammation in the 5xFAD mice. In summary, we demonstrated that CCL01 improved the memory function of 5xFAD mice by protecting neurons against Aβ- and lysoPC-induced toxicity through the regulation of MAPK signaling, neuroinflammation, tau phosphorylation, and gut inflammation, suggesting the potential of CCL01 as treatment for AD.

Lipid Dys-Homeostasis Contributes to APOE4-Associated AD Pathology

The association of the APOE4 (vs. APOE3) isoform with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is unequivocal, but the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely elucidated. A prevailing hypothesis incriminates the impaired ability of APOE4 to clear neurotoxic amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) from the brain as the main mechanism linking the apolipoprotein isoform to disease etiology. The APOE protein mediates lipid transport both within the brain and from the brain to the periphery, suggesting that lipids may be potential co-factors in APOE4-associated physiopathology. The present study reveals several changes in the pathways of lipid homeostasis in the brains of mice expressing the human APOE4 vs. APOE3 isoform. Carriers of APOE4 had altered cholesterol turnover, an imbalance in the ratio of specific classes of phospholipids, lower levels of phosphatidylethanolamines bearing polyunsaturated fatty acids and an overall elevation in levels of monounsaturated fatty acids. These modifications in lipid homeostasis were related to increased production of Aβ peptides as well as augmented levels of tau and phosphorylated tau in primary neuronal cultures. This suite of APOE4-associated anomalies in lipid homeostasis and neurotoxic protein levels may be related to the accrued risk for AD in APOE4 carriers and provides novel insights into potential strategies for therapeutic intervention.

The Possible Mechanism of Physiological Adaptation to the Low-Se Diet and Its Health Risk in the Traditional Endemic Areas of Keshan Diseases

Selenium is an essential trace element for humans and animals. As with oxygen and sulfur, etc., it belongs to the sixth main group of the periodic table of elements. Therefore, the corresponding amino acids, such as selenocysteine (Sec), serine (Ser), and cysteine (Cys), have similar spatial structure, physical, and chemical properties. In this review, we focus on the neglected but key role of serine in a possible mechanism of the physiological adaptation to Se-deficiency in human beings with an adequate intake of dietary protein: the insertion of Cys in place of Sec during the translation of selenoproteins dependent on the Sec insertion sequence element in the 3'UTR of mRNA at the UGA codon through a novel serine-dependent pathway for the de novo synthesis of the Cys-tRNA^[Ser]Sec, similar to Sec-tRNA^[Ser]Sec. We also discuss the important roles of serine in the metabolism of selenium directly or indirectly via GSH, and the maintenance of selenium homostasis regulated through the methylation modification of Sec-tRNA^[Ser]Sec at the position 34U by SAM. Finally, we propose a hypothesis to explain why Keshan disease has gradually disappeared in China and predict the potential health risk of the human body in the physiological adaptation state of low selenium based on the results of animal experiments.

Plasma Lipid Profiles Change with Increasing Numbers of Mild Traumatic Brain Injuries in Rats

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) causes structural, cellular and biochemical alterations which are difficult to detect in the brain and may persist chronically following single or repeated injury. Lipids are abundant in the brain and readily cross the blood-brain barrier, suggesting that lipidomic analysis of blood samples may provide valuable insight into the neuropathological state. This study used liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to examine plasma lipid concentrations at 11 days following sham (no injury), one (1×) or two (2×) mTBI in rats. Eighteen lipid species were identified that distinguished between sham, 1× and 2× mTBI. Three distinct patterns were found: (1) lipids that were altered significantly in concentration after either 1× or 2× F mTBI: cholesterol ester CE (14:0) (increased), phosphoserine PS (14:0/18:2) and hexosylceramide HCER (d18:0/26:0) (decreased), phosphoinositol PI(16:0/18:2) (increased with 1×, decreased with 2× mTBI); (2) lipids that were altered in response to 1× mTBI only: free fatty acid FFA (18:3 and 20:3) (increased); (3) lipids that were altered in response to 2× mTBI only: HCER (22:0), phosphoethanolamine PE (P-18:1/20:4 and P-18:0/20:1) (increased), lysophosphatidylethanolamine LPE (20:1), phosphocholine PC (20:0/22:4), PI (18:1/18:2 and 20:0/18:2) (decreased). These findings suggest that increasing numbers of mTBI induce a range of changes dependent upon the lipid species, which likely reflect a balance of damage and reparative responses.

Structure-specific, accurate quantitation of plasmalogen glycerophosphoethanolamine

Changes in plasmalogen glycerophosphoethanolamine (PE-P) composition (structure and abundance) are a key indicator of altered lipid metabolism. Differential changes in the levels of PE-P have been reported in different disease states, including neurodegenerative diseases. Of particular interest, traumatic brain injury (TBI) has resulted in altered expression of glycerophospholipid profiles, including PE-P. To date, most analytical assays assessing PE-P have focused on general lipidomic workflows to evaluate the relative, semi-quantitative abundance of PE-P during disease progression. This approach provides a broad evaluation of PE-P, yet often lacks specificity and sensitivity for individual PE-P structures which is a necessity for robust quantitative data. The present study highlights the development of a targeted, quantitative method using a HILIC separation and selective reaction monitoring mass spectrometry for the confident identification and accurate quantitation of PE-P. Our innovative method incorporates both the sn-1 alkyl vinyl ether and sn-2 acyl chain as product ion transitions, for specific and sensitive quantitation of 100 PE-P structures. Our method also uniquely allowed for the unambiguous assignment and quantitation of di-unsaturated sn-1 PE-P structures, which to date have not been conclusively quantified. Application of this assay to a TBI mouse model resulted in distinct temporal profiles for plasma PE-P up to 28 days post injury. Plasma PE-P were significantly increased 24 h after induced TBI, followed by a gradual reduction to sham concentrations by day 28. Overall, we established a structure-specific, quantitative assay for identification and quantitation of a comprehensive set of PE-P structures with demonstrated relevance to brain injury.

Dynamics of Choline-Containing Phospholipids in Traumatic Brain Injury and Associated Comorbidities

The incidences of traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are increasing globally because of expanding population and increased dependencies on motorized vehicles and machines. This has resulted in increased socio-economic burden on the healthcare system, as TBIs are often associated with mental and physical morbidities with lifelong dependencies, and have severely limited therapeutic options. There is an emerging need to identify the molecular mechanisms orchestrating these injuries to life-long neurodegenerative disease and a therapeutic strategy to counter them. This review highlights the dynamics and role of choline-containing phospholipids during TBIs and how they can be used to evaluate the severity of injuries and later targeted to mitigate neuro-degradation, based on clinical and preclinical studies. Choline-based phospholipids are involved in maintaining the structural integrity of the neuronal/glial cell membranes and are simultaneously the essential component of various biochemical pathways, such as cholinergic neuronal transmission in the brain. Choline or its metabolite levels increase during acute and chronic phases of TBI because of excitotoxicity, ischemia and oxidative stress; this can serve as useful biomarker to predict the severity and prognosis of TBIs. Moreover, the effect of choline-replenishing agents as a post-TBI management strategy has been reviewed in clinical and preclinical studies. Overall, this review determines the theranostic potential of choline phospholipids and provides new insights in the management of TBI.

GSAP regulates lipid homeostasis and mitochondrial function associated with Alzheimer's disease

Biochemical, pathogenic, and human genetic data confirm that GSAP (γ-secretase activating protein), a selective γ-secretase modulatory protein, plays important roles in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Down's syndrome. However, the molecular mechanism(s) underlying GSAP-dependent pathogenesis remains largely elusive. Here, through unbiased proteomics and single-nuclei RNAseq, we identified that GSAP regulates multiple biological pathways, including protein phosphorylation, trafficking, lipid metabolism, and mitochondrial function. We demonstrated that GSAP physically interacts with the Fe65-APP complex to regulate APP trafficking/partitioning. GSAP is enriched in the mitochondria-associated membrane (MAM) and regulates lipid homeostasis through the amyloidogenic processing of APP. GSAP deletion generates a lipid environment unfavorable for AD pathogenesis, leading to improved mitochondrial function and the rescue of cognitive deficits in an AD mouse model. Finally, we identified a novel GSAP single-nucleotide polymorphism that regulates its brain transcript level and is associated with an increased AD risk. Together, our findings indicate that GSAP impairs mitochondrial function through its MAM localization and that lowering GSAP expression reduces pathological effects associated with AD.

Inherited disorders of complex lipid metabolism: A clinical review

Over 80 human diseases have been attributed to defects in complex lipid metabolism. A majority of them have been reported recently in the setting of rapid advances in genomic technology and their increased use in clinical settings. Lipids are ubiquitous in human biology and play roles in many cellular and intercellular processes. While inborn errors in lipid metabolism can affect every organ system with many examples of genetic heterogeneity and pleiotropy, the clinical manifestations of many of these disorders can be explained based on the disruption of the metabolic pathway involved. In this review, we will discuss the physiological function of major pathways in complex lipid metabolism, including nonlysosomal sphingolipid metabolism, acylceramide metabolism, de novo phospholipid synthesis, phospholipid remodeling, phosphatidylinositol metabolism, mitochondrial cardiolipin synthesis and remodeling, and ether lipid metabolism as well as common clinical phenotypes associated with each.

Age-related changes in brain phospholipids and bioactive lipids in the APP knock-in mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Sustained brain chronic inflammation in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) includes glial cell activation, an increase in cytokines and chemokines, and lipid mediators (LMs), concomitant with decreased pro-homeostatic mediators. The inflammatory response at the onset of pathology engages activation of pro-resolving, pro-homeostatic LMs followed by a gradual decrease. We used an APP knock-in (App KI) AD mouse that accumulates β-amyloid (Aβ) and presents cognitive deficits (at 2 and 6 months of age, respectively) to investigate LMs, their precursors, biosynthetic enzymes and receptors, glial activation, and inflammatory proteins in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus at 2-, 4-, 8- and 18-month-old in comparison with wild-type (WT) mice. We used LC-mass-spectrometry and MALDI molecular imaging to analyze LMs and phospholipids, and immunochemistry for proteins. Our results revealed an age-specific lipid and cytokine profile, and glial activation in the App KI mice. Despite an early onset of Aβ pathology, pro-inflammatory and pro-resolving LMs were prominently increased only in the oldest age group. Furthermore, the LM biosynthetic enzymes increased, and their receptor expression decreased in the aged App KI mice. Arachidonic acid (AA)-containing phospholipid molecular species were elevated, correlating with decreased cPLA2 activity. MALDI molecular imaging depicted differential distribution of phospholipids according to genotype in hippocampal layers. Brain histology disclosed increased microglia proliferation starting from young age in the App KI mice, while astrocyte numbers were enhanced in older ages. Our results demonstrate that the brain lipidome is modified preferentially during aging as compared to amyloid pathology in the model studied here. However, alterations in phospholipids signal early pathological changes in membrane composition.

Plasma lipidome is dysregulated in Alzheimer's disease and is associated with disease risk genes

Lipidomics research could provide insights of pathobiological mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease. This study explores a battery of plasma lipids that can differentiate Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients from healthy controls and determines whether lipid profiles correlate with genetic risk for AD. AD plasma samples were collected from the Sydney Memory and Ageing Study (MAS) Sydney, Australia (aged range 75-97 years; 51.2% male). Untargeted lipidomics analysis was performed by liquid chromatography coupled-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). We found that several lipid species from nine lipid classes, particularly sphingomyelins (SMs), cholesterol esters (ChEs), phosphatidylcholines (PCs), phosphatidylethanolamines (PIs), phosphatidylinositols (PIs), and triglycerides (TGs) are dysregulated in AD patients and may help discriminate them from healthy controls. However, when the lipid species were grouped together into lipid subgroups, only the DG group was significantly higher in AD. ChEs, SMs, and TGs resulted in good classification accuracy using the Glmnet algorithm (elastic net penalization for the generalized linear model [glm]) with more than 80% AUC. In general, group lipids and the lipid subclasses LPC and PE had less classification accuracy compared to the other subclasses. We also found significant increases in SMs, PIs, and the LPE/PE ratio in human U251 astroglioma cell lines exposed to pathophysiological concentrations of oligomeric Aβ₄₂. This suggests that oligomeric Aβ₄₂ plays a contributory, if not causal role, in mediating changes in lipid profiles in AD that can be detected in the periphery. In addition, we evaluated the association of plasma lipid profiles with AD-related single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and polygenic risk scores (PRS) of AD. We found that FERMT2 and MS4A6A showed a significantly differential association with lipids in all lipid classes across disease and control groups. ABCA7 had a differential association with more than half of the DG lipids (52.63%) and PI lipids (57.14%), respectively. Additionally, 43.4% of lipids in the SM class were differentially associated with CLU. More than 30% of lipids in ChE, PE, and TG classes had differential associations with separate genes (ChE-PICALM, SLC24A4, and SORL1; PE-CLU and CR1; TG-BINI) between AD and control group. These data may provide renewed insights into the pathobiology of AD and the feasibility of identifying individuals with greater AD risk.

Brain lipidomics as a rising field in neurodegenerative contexts: Perspectives with Machine Learning approaches

Lipids are essential for cellular functioning considering their role in membrane composition, signaling, and energy metabolism. The brain is the second most abundant organ in terms of lipid concentration and diversity only after adipose tissue. However, in the central system (CNS) lipid dysregulation has been linked to the etiology, progression, and severity of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimeŕs, Parkinson, and Multiple Sclerosis. Advances in the human genome and subsequent sequencing technologies allowed us the study of lipidomics as a promising approach to diagnosis and treatment of neurodegeneration. Lipidomics advances rapidly increased the amount and quality of data allowing the integration with other omic types as well as implementing novel bioinformatic and quantitative tools such as machine learning (ML). Integration of lipidomics data with ML, as a powerful quantitative predictive approach, led to improvements in diagnostic biomarker prediction, clinical data integration, network, and systems approaches for neural behavior, novel etiology markers for inflammation, and neurodegeneration progression and even Mass Spectrometry image analysis. In this sense, by exploiting lipidomics data with ML is possible to improve the identification of new biomarkers or unveil new molecular mechanisms associated with lipid impairment across neurodegeneration. In this review, we present the lipidomic neurobiology state-of-the-art highlighting its potential applications to study neurodegenerative conditions. Also, we present theoretical background, applications, and advances in the integration of lipidomics with ML. This review opens the door to new approaches in this rising field.

Invited review: Acid whey trends and health benefits

In recent years, acid whey production has increased due to a growing demand for Greek yogurt and acid-coagulated cheeses. Acid whey is a dairy by-product for which the industry has long struggled to find a sustainable application. Bulk amounts of acid whey associated with the dairy industry have led to increasing research on ways to valorize it. Industry players are finding ways to use acid whey on-site with ultrafiltration techniques and biodigesters, to reduce transportation costs and provide energy for the facility. Academia has sought to further investigate practical uses and benefits of this by-product. Although modern research has shown many other possible applications for acid whey, no comprehensive review yet exists about its composition, utilization, and health benefits. In this review, the industrial trends, the applications and uses, and the potential health benefits associated with the consumption of acid whey are discussed. The proximal composition of acid whey is discussed in depth. In addition, the potential applications of acid whey, such as its use as a starting material in the production of fermented beverages, as growth medium for cultivation of lactic acid bacteria in replacement of commercial media, and as a substrate for the isolation of lactose and minerals, are reviewed. Finally, the potential health benefits of the major protein constituents of acid whey, bioactive phospholipids, and organic acids such as lactic acid are described. Acid whey has promising applications related to potential health benefits, ranging from antibacterial effects to cognitive development for babies to human gut health.

Systems biology approaches to study lipidomes in health and disease

Lipids have many important biological roles, such as energy storage sources, structural components of plasma membranes and as intermediates in metabolic and signaling pathways. Lipid metabolism is under tight homeostatic control, exhibiting spatial and dynamic complexity at multiple levels. Consequently, lipid-related disturbances play important roles in the pathogenesis of most of the common diseases. Lipidomics, defined as the study of lipidomes in biological systems, has emerged as a rapidly-growing field. Due to the chemical and functional diversity of lipids, the application of a systems biology approach is essential if one is to address lipid functionality at different physiological levels. In parallel with analytical advances to measure lipids in biological matrices, the field of computational lipidomics has been rapidly advancing, enabling modeling of lipidomes in their pathway, spatial and dynamic contexts. This review focuses on recent progress in systems biology approaches to study lipids in health and disease, with specific emphasis on methodological advances and biomedical applications.

Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Regional Cerebral Free Fatty Acids in Rats Using the Stable Isotope Labeling Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Method

Free fatty acids serve as important bioactive molecules in the brain. They are involved in message transfer in the brain. There are many reports available in the literature regarding the role of cerebral fatty acids in message transfer; however, most of the studies are mainly focused on limited fatty acid species or only a few specific brain regions. To understand the relationship between cerebral functions and free fatty acids, it is necessary to investigate the distribution of the free fatty acids among different regions in the whole brain. In this study, free fatty acids were extracted from different brain regions and analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively using the stable isotopic labeling liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry approach. In total, 1008 potential free fatty acids were detected in the whole brain out of which 38 were found to be commonly present in all brain regions. Among different brain regions, the highest and the smallest amounts of potential free fatty acids were detected in the olfactory bulb and cerebellum, respectively. From a statistical point of view, 4-methyl-2-oxovaleric acid, cis-11, 14-eicosadienoic acid, tridecanoic acid, myristic acid, nonadecanoic acid, and arachidic acid were found to significantly vary among the four different brain regions (olfactory bulb, occipital lobe, hippocampus, and cerebellum). The variation in the composition of free fatty acids among different brain regions may be very important for investigating the relationship between free fatty acids and functions of cerebral regions.

Gene-environment interaction promotes Alzheimer's risk as revealed by synergy of repeated mild traumatic brain injury and mouse App knock-in

There is a strong unmet need for translational progress towards Alzheimer's disease (AD) modifying therapy. Unfortunately, preclinical modeling of the disease has been disappointing, relying primarily on transgenic mouse overexpression of rare dominant mutations. Clinical manifestation of AD symptoms is known to reflect interaction between environmental and genetic risks. Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is an environmental risk for dementia, including Alzheimer's, but there has been limited mechanistic analysis of mTBI contribution to AD. Here, we investigate the interplay between mTBI and Aβ precursor protein gene mutation in AD pathogenesis. We employed a knock-in (KI) model of AD that expresses the Aß-containing exons from human APP bearing the Swedish and Iberian mutations, namely AppNL-F/NL-F mice. Without environmental risk, this genetic variation yields minimal mouse symptomatology. Anesthetized 4-month-old KI mice and their age-matched wild type (WT) controls were subjected to repeated mild closed head injury (rmCHI), once daily for 14 days. Anesthetized, uninjured genotype- and age-matched mice were used as sham controls. At 3- and 8-months post-injury, amyloid-β, phospho-tau and Iba1 expression in the injured KI cortices were assessed. Our data reveal that rmCHI enhances accumulation of amyloid-β and hyperphosphorylated tau inclusions, as well as neuroinflammation in AppNL-F/NL-F mice. Furthermore, novel object recognition and Morris water maze tests demonstrated that rmCHI greatly exacerbates persistent cognitive deficits in APPNL-F/NL-F mice. Therefore, study of gene-environment interaction demonstrates that combining risk factors provides a more robust model for AD, and that repeated mTBI substantially accelerates AD pathology in a genetically susceptible situation.

Plasma Phospholipid Metabolites Associate With Functional Outcomes Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Older Adults

OBJECTIVE

To compare differences using a metabolomics approach in older adults (≥55) with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) to control adults and to identify a signature profile related to functional outcome 3-6 months post-injury.

METHODS

We performed metabolomics analysis using LC-MS of untargeted aqueous metabolites on plasma samples taken from a parent prospective cohort study. Older adults with mTBI (n = 14) were purposively sampled to include participants with worsening (decrease in GOS-E of at least 1 level) and improved (increase in GOS-E of at least 1 level) outcomes from 3 to 6 months. The data were analyzed using PLS-DA with VIP scores, Random Forest, and spline fit between the different groups as a function of time for exposure on outcome.

RESULTS

Separation of comparisons were seen at 24 hours (negative ionization) and 6 months (positive ionization), revealing two metabolites of interest, phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine. Phosphatidylcholine levels were higher in those with mTBI compared to controls (p < 0.05), while lower concentration of phosphatidylethanolamine was seen in those with mTBI compared to controls (p < 0.05). Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate was significant in those with mTBI compared to controls (n = 10) based on improved (n = 6) versus worsened (n = 8) outcomes from 3 to 6 months.

CONCLUSION

We identified plasma metabolites related to phospholipid metabolism in older adults following mTBI and associated with long-term functional outcome. These findings may underly pathological mechanisms of outcome differences in older adults who experience mTBI.

Bioactive lipids, inflammation and chronic diseases

Endogenous bioactive lipids are part of a complex network that modulates a plethora of cellular and molecular processes involved in health and disease, of which inflammation represents one of the most prominent examples. Inflammation serves as a well-conserved defence mechanism, triggered in the event of chemical, mechanical or microbial damage, that is meant to eradicate the source of damage and restore tissue function. However, excessive inflammatory signals, or impairment of pro-resolving/anti-inflammatory pathways leads to chronic inflammation, which is a hallmark of chronic pathologies. All main classes of endogenous bioactive lipids - namely eicosanoids, specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators, lysoglycerophopsholipids and endocannabinoids - have been consistently involved in the chronic inflammation that characterises pathologies such as cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, asthma, as well as autoimmune and neurodegenerative disorders and inflammatory bowel diseases. This review gathers the current knowledge concerning the involvement of endogenous bioactive lipids in the pathogenic processes of chronic inflammatory pathologies.

Plasma lipidomic biomarker analysis reveals distinct lipid changes in vascular dementia

Vascular dementia (VaD) is a complex neurocognitive disorder secondary to a variety of cerebrovascular lesions. Numerous studies have shown that lipid metabolism is involved in the pathobiology of the disease. We examined the plasma lipid profiles in VaD, with the expectation of identifying reliable lipid biomarkers for VaD. 49 VaD patients and 48 healthy controls were recruited from Bankstown-Lidcombe Hospital in Sydney, Australia. Lipids were extracted by single phase 1-butanol/methanol, and untargeted analysis was performed by liquid chromatography coupled-mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). Univariate analysis of variance was used to examine the differences in lipid classes and individual lipids between VaD and control groups. In an independent sample of 161 subjects from the Older Australian Twins Study (OATS), elastic net penalization for the generalized linear model (Glmnet) and Random Forest were applied to the lipid levels to subcategorise the sample into vascular cognitive impairment and controls. Most lipids belonging to the classes of ceramides (Cer), cholesterol esters (ChE) and phospholipids were significantly lower in VaD plasma, while glycerides were elevated compared to controls. Levels of ChE, Cer and the two lipid classes together achieved the best accuracy in discriminating VaD from controls, with more than 80% accuracy. The probable VaD group in the OATS sample predicted by the lipid levels showed greater impairment in most cognitive domains, especially attention and processing speed and executive function from controls but did not differ in white matter hyperintensities and DTI measures. As a conclusion, plasma lipids levels, in particular Cer and ChE, are abnormal in VaD and may help discriminate them from healthy controls. Understanding the basis of these differences may provide insights into the pathobiology of VaD.

Fatty acid metabolism in the progression and resolution of CNS disorders

Recent advances in lipidomics and metabolomics have unveiled the complexity of fatty acid metabolism and the fatty acid lipidome in health and disease. A growing body of evidence indicates that imbalances in the metabolism and level of fatty acids drive the initiation and progression of central nervous system (CNS) disorders such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. Here, we provide an in-depth overview on the impact of the β-oxidation, synthesis, desaturation, elongation, and peroxidation of fatty acids on the pathophysiology of these and other neurological disorders. Furthermore, we discuss the impact of individual fatty acids species, acquired through the diet or endogenously synthesized in mammals, on neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and CNS repair. The findings discussed in this review highlight the therapeutic potential of modulators of fatty acid metabolism and the fatty acid lipidome in CNS disorders, and underscore the diagnostic value of lipidome signatures in these diseases.

Role of Exosomes in Central Nervous System Diseases

There are many types of intercellular communication, and extracellular vesicles are one of the important forms of this. They are released by a variety of cell types, are heterogeneous, and can roughly be divided into microvesicles and exosomes according to their occurrence and function. Of course, exosomes do not just play a role in cell-to-cell communication. In the nervous system, exosomes can participate in intercellular communication, maintain the myelin sheath, and eliminate waste. Similarly, exosomes in the brain can play a role in central nervous system diseases, such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), prion disease, and traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), with both positive and negative effects (such as the transfer of misfolded proteins). Exosomes contain a variety of key bioactive substances and can therefore be considered as a snapshot of the intracellular environment. Studies have shown that exosomes from the central nervous system can be found in cerebrospinal fluid and peripheral body fluids, and that their contents will change with disease occurrence. Because exosomes can penetrate the blood brain barrier (BBB) and are highly stable in peripheral circulation, they can protect disease-related molecules well and therefore, using exosomes as a biomarker of central nervous system diseases is an attractive prospect as they can be used to monitor disease development and enable early diagnosis and treatment optimization. In this review, we discuss the current state of knowledge of exosomes, and introduce their pathophysiological roles in different diseases of the central nervous system as well as their roles and applications as a viable pathological biomarker.