Experience-Dependent Structural Plasticity of Adult-Born Neurons in the Aging Hippocampus

Egr1 Expression Is Correlated With Synaptic Activity but Not Intrinsic Membrane Properties in Mouse Adult-Born Dentate Granule Cells

The discovery of adult-born granule cells (aDGCs) in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus has raised questions regarding how they develop, incorporate into the hippocampal circuitry, and contribute to learning and memory. Here, we used patch-clamp electrophysiology to investigate the intrinsic and synaptic excitability of mouse aDGCs as they matured, enabled by using a tamoxifen-induced genetic label to birth date the aDGCs at different animal ages. Importantly, we also undertook immunofluorescence studies of the expression of the immediate early gene Egr1 and compared these findings with the electrophysiology data in the same animals. We examined two groups of animals, with aDGC birthdating when the mice were 2 months and at 7-9 months of age. In both groups, cells 4 weeks old had lower thresholds for current-evoked action potentials than older cells but fired fewer spikes during long current pulses and responded more poorly to synaptic activation. aDGCs born in both 2 and 7-9-month-old mice matured in their intrinsic excitability and synaptic properties from 4-12 weeks postgenesis, but this occurred more slowly for the older age animals. Interestingly, this pattern of intrinsic excitability changes did not correlate with the pattern of Egr1 expression. Instead, the development of Egr1 expression was correlated with the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents. These results suggest that in order for aDGCs to fully participate in hippocampal circuitry, as indicated by Egr1 expression, they must have developed enough synaptic input, in spite of the greater input resistance and reduced firing threshold that characterizes young aDGCs.

Photobiomodulation in the aging brain: a systematic review from animal models to humans

Aging is a multifactorial biological process that may be associated with cognitive decline. Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a non-pharmacological therapy that shows promising results in the treatment or prevention of age-related cognitive impairments. The aim of this review is to compile the preclinical and clinical evidence of the effect of PBM during aging in healthy and pathological conditions, including behavioral analysis and neuropsychological assessment, as well as brain-related modifications. 37 studies were identified by searching in PubMed, Scopus, and PsycInfo databases. Most studies use wavelengths of 800, 810, or 1064 nm but intensity and days of application were highly variable. In animal studies, it has been shown improvements in spatial memory, episodic-like memory, social memory, while different results have been found in recognition memory. Locomotor activity improved in Parkinson disease models. In healthy aged humans, it has been outlined improvements in working memory, cognitive inhibition, and lexical/semantic access, while general cognition was mainly enhanced on Alzheimer disease or mild cognitive impairment. Anxiety assessment is scarce and shows mixed results. As for brain activity, results outline promising effects of PBM in reversing metabolic alterations and enhancing mitochondrial function, as evidenced by restored CCO activity and ATP levels. Additionally, PBM demonstrated neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and hemodynamic effects. The findings suggest that PBM holds promise as a non-invasive intervention for enhancing cognitive function, and in the modulation of brain functional reorganization. It is necessary to develop standardized protocols for the correct, beneficial, and homogeneous use of PBM.

Modelling adult neurogenesis in the aging rodent hippocampus: a midlife crisis

Contrary to humans, adult hippocampal neurogenesis in rodents is not controversial. And in the last three decades, multiple studies in rodents have deemed adult neurogenesis essential for most hippocampal functions. The functional relevance of new neurons relies on their distinct physiological properties during their maturation before they become indistinguishable from mature granule cells. Most functional studies have used very young animals with robust neurogenesis. However, this trait declines dramatically with age, questioning its functional relevance in aging animals, a caveat that has been mentioned repeatedly, but rarely analyzed quantitatively. In this meta-analysis, we use data from published studies to determine the critical functional window of new neurons and to model their numbers across age in both mice and rats. Our model shows that new neurons with distinct functional profile represent about 3% of the total granule cells in young adult 3-month-old rodents, and their number decline following a power function to reach less than 1% in middle aged animals and less than 0.5% in old mice and rats. These low ratios pose an important logical and computational caveat to the proposed essential role of new neurons in the dentate gyrus, particularly in middle aged and old animals, a factor that needs to be adequately addressed when defining the relevance of adult neurogenesis in hippocampal function.

Adult-born neurons inhibit developmentally-born neurons during spatial learning

Ongoing neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus (DG) subregion of the hippocampus results in a heterogenous population of neurons. Immature adult-born neurons (ABNs) have physiological and anatomical properties that may give them a unique role in learning. For example, compared to older granule neurons, they have greater somatic excitability, which could facilitate their recruitment into memory traces. However, recruitment is also likely to depend on interactions with other DG neurons through processes such as lateral inhibition. Immature ABNs target inhibitory interneurons and, compared to older neurons, they receive less GABAergic inhibition. Thus, they may induce lateral inhibition of mature DG neurons while being less susceptible to inhibition themselves. To test this we used a chemogenetic approach to silence immature ABNs as rats learned a spatial water maze task, and measured activity (Fos expression) in ABNs and developmentally-born neurons (DBNs). A retrovirus expressing the inhibitory DREADD receptor, hM4Di, was injected into the dorsal DG of male rats at 6w to infect neurons born in adulthood. Animals were also injected with BrdU to label DBNs or ABNs. DBNs were significantly more active than immature 4-week-old ABNs. Silencing 4-week-old ABNs did not alter learning but it increased activity in DBNs. However, silencing ABNs did not affect activation in other ABNs within the DG. Silencing ABNs also did not alter Fos expression in parvalbumin- and somatostatin-expressing interneurons. Collectively, these results suggest that ABNs may directly inhibit DBN activity during hippocampal-dependent learning, which may be relevant for maintaining sparse hippocampal representations of experienced events.

The Molecular Effects of Environmental Enrichment on Alzheimer's Disease

Environmental enrichment (EE) is an environmental paradigm encompassing sensory, cognitive, and physical stimulation at a heightened level. Previous studies have reported the beneficial effects of EE in the brain, particularly in the hippocampus. EE improves cognitive function as well as ameliorates depressive and anxiety-like behaviors, making it a potentially effective neuroprotective strategy against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here, we summarize the current evidence for EE as a neuroprotective strategy as well as the potential molecular pathways that can explain the effects of EE from a biochemical perspective using animal models. The effectiveness of EE in enhancing brain activity against neurodegeneration is explored with a view to differences present in early and late life EE exposure, with its potential application in human being discussed. We discuss EE as one of the non pharmacological approaches in preventing or delaying the onset of AD for future research.

Molecular landscapes of human hippocampal immature neurons across lifespan

Immature dentate granule cells (imGCs) arising from adult hippocampal neurogenesis contribute to plasticity and unique brain functions in rodents1,2 and are dysregulated in multiple human neurological disorders3-5. Little is known about the molecular characteristics of adult human hippocampal imGCs, and even their existence is under debate1,6-8. Here we performed single-nucleus RNA sequencing aided by a validated machine learning-based analytic approach to identify imGCs and quantify their abundance in the human hippocampus at different stages across the lifespan. We identified common molecular hallmarks of human imGCs across the lifespan and observed age-dependent transcriptional dynamics in human imGCs that suggest changes in cellular functionality, niche interactions and disease relevance, that differ from those in mice9. We also found a decreased number of imGCs with altered gene expression in Alzheimer's disease. Finally, we demonstrated the capacity for neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus with the presence of rare dentate granule cell fate-specific proliferating neural progenitors and with cultured surgical specimens. Together, our findings suggest the presence of a substantial number of imGCs in the adult human hippocampus via low-frequency de novo generation and protracted maturation, and our study reveals their molecular properties across the lifespan and in Alzheimer's disease.

Circuit formation in the adult brain

Neurons in the mammalian central nervous system display an enormous capacity for circuit formation during development but not later in life. In principle, new circuits could be also formed in adult brain, but the absence of the developmental milieu and the presence of growth inhibition and hundreds of working circuits are generally viewed as unsupportive for such a process. Here, we bring together evidence from different areas of neuroscience—such as neurological disorders, adult‐brain neurogenesis, innate behaviours, cell grafting, and in vivo cell reprogramming—which demonstrates robust circuit formation in adult brain. In some cases, adult‐brain rewiring is ongoing and required for certain types of behaviour and memory, while other cases show significant promise for brain repair in disease models. Together, these examples highlight that the adult brain has higher capacity for structural plasticity than previously recognized. Understanding the underlying mechanisms behind this retained plasticity has the potential to advance basic knowledge regarding the molecular organization of synaptic circuits and could herald a new era of neural circuit engineering for therapeutic repair.

Enhanced Non-Associative Long-Term Potentiation in Immature Granule Cells in the Dentate Gyrus of Adult Rats

The dentate gyrus is one of the few sites of neurogenesis in the adult brain. Integration of new-generated granule cells into the hippocampal circuitry provides a substrate for structural plasticity, fundamental for normal function of adult hippocampus. However, mechanisms of synaptic plasticity that mediate integration of new-generated granule cells into the existing circuitry remain poorly understood. Especially mechanisms of plasticity at GABA-ergic synapses remain elusive. Here, we show that postsynaptic spiking without presynaptic activation can induce heterosynaptic, non-associative plasticity at GABA-ergic inputs to both immature and mature granule cells. In both immature and mature neurons, plastic changes were bidirectional and individual inputs could express long-term potentiation (LTP) or long-term depression (LTD), or do not change. However, properties of non-associative plasticity dramatically change with maturation of newly generated granule cells: while in immature cells there was a clear predominance of non-associative LTP and net potentiation across the inputs, in mature neurons, potentiation and depression were balanced with no net change on average. We conclude that GABA-ergic inputs to granule cells are plastic, and that the rules for induction of non-associative plasticity change with maturation. We propose that potentiation-biased non-associative plasticity of GABA-ergic transmission might help to counter-balance an increase of excitatory drive that is facilitated by enhanced LTP at glutamatergic synapses in maturating granule cells. Such mechanism might help to build a strong GABA-ergic input to surviving active new cells, necessary for normal function of mature granule cells, which operate under a tight inhibitory control and generate sparse spiking activity.

What Is the Relationship Between Hippocampal Neurogenesis Across Different Stages of the Lifespan?

Hippocampal neurogenesis has typically been studied during embryonic development or in adulthood, promoting the perception of two distinct phenomena. We propose a perspective that hippocampal neurogenesis in the mammalian brain is one continuous, lifelong developmental process. We summarize the common features of hippocampal neurogenesis that are maintained across the lifespan, as well as dynamic age-dependent properties. We highlight that while the progression of hippocampal neurogenesis across the lifespan is conserved between mammalian species, the timing of this progression is species-dependent. Finally, we discuss some current challenges in the hippocampus neurogenesis field, and future research directions to address them, such as time course analysis across the lifespan, mechanisms regulating neurogenesis progression, and interspecies comparisons. We hope that this new perspective of hippocampal neurogenesis will prompt fresh insight into previous research and inspire new directions to advance the field to identify biologically significant ways to harness the endogenous capacity for neurogenesis in the hippocampus.

Wnt signaling in the adult hippocampal neurogenic niche

The subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) is a neurogenic niche of the adult brain that contains neural stem cells (NSCs) able to generate excitatory glutamatergic granule neurons, which integrate into the DG circuit and contribute to hippocampal plasticity, learning, and memory. Thus, endogenous NSCs could be harnessed for therapeutic purposes. In this context, it is critical to characterize the molecular mechanisms controlling the generation and functional integration of adult-born neurons. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is tightly controlled by both cell-autonomous mechanisms and the interaction with the complex niche microenvironment, which harbors the NSCs and provides the signals to support their maintenance, activation, and differentiation. Among niche-derived factors, Wnt ligands play diverse roles. Wnts are secreted glycoproteins that bind to Frizzled receptors and co-receptors to trigger the Wnt signaling pathway. Here, we summarize the current knowledge about the roles of Wnts in the regulation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis. We discuss the possible contribution of the different niche cells to the regulation of local Wnt signaling activity, and how Wnts derived from different cell types could induce differential effects. Finally, we discuss how the effects of Wnt signaling on hippocampal network activity might contribute to neurogenesis regulation. Although the evidence supports relevant roles for Wnt signaling in adult hippocampal neurogenesis, defining the cellular source and the mechanisms controlling secretion and diffusion of Wnts will be crucial to further understand Wnt signaling regulation of adult NSCs, and eventually, to propose this pathway as a therapeutic target to promote neurogenesis.

REM Sleep Deprivation Alters Learning-Induced Cell Proliferation and Generation of Newborn Young Neurons in the Dentate Gyrus of the Dorsal Hippocampus

The hippocampus-dependent "trace-appetitive conditioning task" increases cell proliferation and the generation of newborn young neurons. Evidence suggests that adult hippocampal neurogenesis and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep play an essential role in memory consolidation. On the other hand, REM sleep deprivation (REM-SD) induces detrimental effects on training-induced cell proliferation in the hippocampus's dentate gyrus (DG). Nonetheless, the role of REM sleep in the trace-appetitive memory and fate determination of the newly proliferated cells is not known. Here, we have studied the following: (I) the effects of 24 h of REM-SD (soon after training) on trace- and delay-appetitive memory and cell proliferation in the adult DG and (II) the effects of chronic (96 h) REM-SD (3 days after the training, the period in which newly generated cells progressed toward the neuronal lineage) on trace-appetitive memory and the generation of newborn young neurons. We used a modified multiple platform method for the selective REM-SD without altering non-REM (NREM) sleep. We found that 24 h of REM-SD, soon after trace-conditioning, impaired the trace-appetitive memory and the training-induced cell proliferation. Nevertheless, 96 h of REM-SD (3 days after the training) did not impair trace memory. Interestingly, 96 h of REM-SD altered the generation of newborn young neurons. These results suggest that REM sleep plays an essential role in training-induced cell proliferation and the fate determination of the newly generated cells toward the neuronal lineage.

The Role of NMDAR and BDNF in Cognitive Dysfunction Induced by Different Microwave Radiation Conditions in Rats

Background: To investigate the effects of different levels of microwave radiation on learning and memory in Wistar rats and explore the underlying mechanisms of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR/NR) and Brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF); Methods: A total of 140 Wistar rats were exposed to microwave radiation levels of 0, 10, 30 or 50 mW/cm2 for 6 min. Morris Water Maze Test, high-performance liquid chromatography, Transmission Electron Microscope and Western blotting were used; Results: The 30 and 50 mW/cm2 groups exhibited longer average escape latencies and fewer platform crossings than the 0 mW/cm2 group from 6 h to 3 d after microwave radiation. Alterations in the amino acid neurotransmitters of the hippocampi were shown at 6 h, 3 d and 7 d after exposure to 10, 30 or 50 mW/cm2 microwave radiation. The length and width of the Postsynaptic density were increased. The expression of NR1, NR2A and NR2B increased from day 1 to day 7; Postsynaptic density protein-95 and cortactin expression increased from day 3 to day 7; BDNF and Tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB) expression increased between 6 h and 1 d after 30 mW/cm2 microwave radiation exposure, but they decreased after 50mW/cm2 exposure. Conclusions: Microwave exposure (30 or 50 mW/cm2, for 6 min) may cause abnormalities in neurotransmitter release and synaptic structures, resulting in impaired learning and memory; BDNF and NMDAR-related signaling molecules might contribute differently to these alterations.

Kainate receptors regulate the functional properties of young adult-born dentate granule cells

Both inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter receptors can influence maturation and survival of adult-born neurons in the dentate gyrus; nevertheless, how these two neurotransmitter systems affect integration of new neurons into the existing circuitry is still not fully characterized. Here, we demonstrate that glutamate receptors of the kainate receptor (KAR) subfamily are expressed in adult-born dentate granule cells (abDGCs) and that, through their interaction with GABAergic signaling mechanisms, they alter the functional properties of adult-born cells during a critical period of their development. Both the intrinsic properties and synaptic connectivity of young abDGCs were affected. Timed KAR loss in a cohort of young adult-born neurons in mice disrupted their performance in a spatial discrimination task but not in a hippocampal-dependent fear conditioning task. Together, these results demonstrate the importance of KARs in the proper functional development of young abDGCs.

RGS6 Mediates Effects of Voluntary Running on Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis

Voluntary running enhances adult hippocampal neurogenesis, with consequences for hippocampal-dependent learning ability and mood regulation. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, we show that voluntary running induces unique and dynamic gene expression changes specifically within the adult-born hippocampal neurons, with significant impact on genes involved in neuronal maturation and human diseases. We identify the regulator of G protein signaling 6 (RGS6) as a key factor that mediates running impact on adult-born neurons. RGS6 overexpression mimics the positive effects of voluntary running on morphological and physiological maturation of adult new neurons and reduced sensitivity of adult-born neurons to the inhibitory effect of GABA_B (γ-Aminobutyric acid B) receptor activation. Knocking down RGS6 abolishes running-enhanced neuronal maturation and hippocampal neurogenesis-dependent learning and anxiolytic effect. Our study provides a data resource showing genome-wide intrinsic molecular changes in adult-born hippocampal neurons that contribute to voluntary running-induced neurogenesis.

Functional and Structural Correlates of Impaired Enrichment-Mediated Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis in a Mouse Model of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure

Background:

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) are associated with a wide range of cognitive deficiencies.

Objective:

We previously found that gestational exposure to moderate levels of alcohol in mice throughout the 1st-2nd human trimester-equivalents for brain development results in profound impairment of the hippocampal neurogenic response to enriched environment (EE) in adulthood, without altering baseline neurogenesis rate under standard housing (SH). However, the functional and structural consequences of impaired EE-mediated neurogenesis in the context of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) have not been determined.

Results:

Here, we demonstrate that PAE-EE mice display impaired performance on a neurogenesis-dependent pattern discrimination task, broadened behavioral activation of the dentate gyrus, as assessed by expression of the immediate early gene, c-Fos, and impaired dendritic branching of adult-generated dentate granule cells (aDGCs).

Conclusions:

These studies further underscore the impact of moderate gestational alcohol exposure on adult hippocampal plasticity and support adult hippocampal neurogenesis as a potential therapeutic target to remediate certain neurological outcomes in FASD.

Mechanisms Underlying Memory Consolidation by Adult-Born Neurons During Sleep

The mammalian hippocampus generates new neurons that incorporate into existing neuronal networks throughout the lifespan, which bestows a unique form of cellular plasticity to the memory system. Recently, we found that hippocampal adult-born neurons (ABNs) that were active during learning reactivate during subsequent rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and provided causal evidence that ABN activity during REM sleep is necessary for memory consolidation. Here, we describe the potential underlying mechanisms by highlighting distinct characteristics of ABNs including decoupled firing from local oscillations and ability to undergo profound synaptic remodeling in response to experience. We further discuss whether ABNs constitute the conventional definition of engram cells by focusing on their active and passive roles in the memory system. This synthesis of evidence helps advance our thinking on the unique mechanisms by which ABNs contribute to memory consolidation.

In Vivo Reprogramming Ameliorates Aging Features in Dentate Gyrus Cells and Improves Memory in Mice

Post-translational epigenetic modifications take place in mouse neurons of the dentate gyrus (DG) with age. Here, we report that age-dependent reduction in H3K9 trimethylation (H3K9me3) is prevented by cyclic induction of the Yamanaka factors used for cell reprogramming. Interestingly, Yamanaka factors elevated the levels of migrating cells containing the neurogenic markers doublecortin and calretinin, and the levels of the NMDA receptor subunit GluN2B. These changes could result in an increase in the survival of newborn DG neurons during their maturation and higher synaptic plasticity in mature neurons. Importantly, these cellular changes were accompanied by an improvement in mouse performance in the object recognition test over long time. We conclude that transient cyclic reprogramming in vivo in the central nervous system could be an effective strategy to ameliorate aging of the central nervous system and neurodegenerative diseases.

Responsiveness of dentate neurons generated throughout adult life is associated with resilience to cognitive aging

During aging, some individuals are resilient to the decline of cognitive functions whereas others are vulnerable. These inter-individual differences in memory abilities have been associated with differences in the rate of hippocampal neurogenesis measured in elderlies. Whether the maintenance of the functionality of neurons generated throughout adult life is linked to resilience to cognitive aging remains completely unexplored. Using the immediate early gene Zif268, we analyzed the activation of dentate granule neurons born in adult (3-month-old), middle-aged (12-month-old), or senescent (18-month-old) rats (n = 96) in response to learning when animals reached 21 months of age. The activation of neurons born during the developmental period was also examined. We show that adult-born neurons can survive up to 19 months and that neurons generated 4, 10, or 19 months before learning, but not developmentally born neurons, are activated in senescent rats with good learning abilities. In contrast, aged rats with bad learning abilities do not exhibit activity-dependent regulation of newborn cells, whatever their birthdate. In conclusion, we propose that resilience to cognitive aging is associated with responsiveness of neurons born during adult life. These data add to our current knowledge by showing that the aging of memory abilities stems not only from the number but also from the responsiveness of adult-born neurons.

Rejuvenating the Brain With Chronic Exercise Through Adult Neurogenesis

The aging brain presents a general decline in plasticity that also affects hippocampal neurogenesis. Besides the well-known reduction in the rate of neuronal generation, development of new neurons is largely delayed in the aging brain. We have recently shown that this slow development is accelerated when middle-aged mice perform voluntary exercise in a running wheel. It is unclear whether the effects of exercise on neurogenic plasticity are persistent in time in a manner that might influence neuronal cohorts generated over an extended time span. To clarify these issues, we examined the effects of exercise length in 3-week-old neurons and found that their development is accelerated only when running occurs for long (3-4 weeks) but not short periods (1 week). Furthermore, chronic running acted with similar efficiency on neurons that were born at the onset, within, or at the end of the exercise period, lasting until 3 months. Interestingly, no effects were observed on neurons born 1 month after exercise had ended. Our results indicate that multiple neuronal cohorts born throughout the exercise span integrate very rapidly in the aging brain, such that the effects of running will accumulate and expand network assembly promoted by neurogenesis. These networks are likely to be more complex than those assembled in a sedentary mouse due to the faster and more efficient integration of new neurons.