1
|
Solomon D, Grierson J, Godier-McBard L, Guirguis A. Experience and views of healthcare professionals towards people who use new psychoactive substances: Evidence from statutory, non-statutory, and private mental health and addiction healthcare services. Hum Psychopharmacol 2023; 38:e2883. [PMID: 37843432 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE It is unclear how healthcare professionals (HCPs) experience and view the challenges of working with people who use New Psychoactive Substances (PWUNPS), in different healthcare services (HCS). The aim of the study was to explore HCPs' experiences of working with individuals who use NPS across statutory, non-statutory, and private mental health and addiction HCSs. METHODS HCPs completed in-depth semi-structured interviews. Audio recordings were transcribed verbatim with a mean duration of 30 min 55 s. Data were analysed through thematic analysis. RESULTS A purposive sample of 14 HCPs (6 men, 8 women) with a mean age of 42.5 years were interviewed in 2019. Organisational issues, including funding, impacted the treatment for PWUNPS and HCPs perceived a lack of support dependent on their qualifications. They reported a lack of assessment, policy, harm reduction, and awareness of NPS-related symptoms including mental health problems and stigma faced by PWUNPS. CONCLUSION HCPs need better training, education, and assessment processes to manage acute NPS intoxications and address the stigma associated with PWUNPS. There is a need for policy-making opportunities across different HCSs to ensure better healthcare outcomes for PWUNPS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Solomon
- School of Nursing, Midwifery & Health Education, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, University of Bedfordshire, Luton, UK
| | - Jeffrey Grierson
- Faculty of Health, Education, Medicine, and Social Care School, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Lauren Godier-McBard
- Centre for Military Women's Research (CMWR), Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Analysis of Stock Market Public Opinion Based on Web Crawler and Deep Learning Technologies Including 1DCNN and LSTM. ARABIAN JOURNAL FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s13369-022-07444-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
3
|
De Luca MA, Tocco G, Mostallino R, Laus A, Caria F, Musa A, Pintori N, Ucha M, Poza C, Ambrosio E, Di Chiara G, Castelli MP. Pharmacological characterization of novel synthetic opioids: Isotonitazene, metonitazene, and piperidylthiambutene as potent MU opioid receptor agonists. Neuropharmacology 2022; 221:109263. [PMID: 36154843 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent trends of opioid abuse and related fatalities have highlighted the critical role of Novel Synthetic Opioids (NSOs). We studied the μ-opioid-like properties of isotonitazene (ITZ), metonitazene (MTZ), and piperidylthiambutene (PTB) using different approaches. In vitro studies showed that ITZ and MTZ displayed a higher potency in both rat membrane homogenates (EC50: 0.99 and 19.1 nM, respectively) and CHO-MOR (EC50: 0.71 and 10.0 nM, respectively) than [D-Ala2, NMe-Phe4, Gly-ol5]-enkephalin (DAMGO), with no difference in maximal efficacy (Emax) between DAMGO and NSOs. ITZ also has higher affinity (Ki: 0.06 and 0.05 nM) at the MOR than DAMGO in both systems, whilst MTZ has higher affinity in CHO-MOR (Ki = 0.23 nM) and similar affinity in rat cerebral cortex (Ki = 0.22 nM). PTB showed lower affinity and potency than DAMGO. In vivo, ITZ displayed higher analgesic potency than fentanyl and morphine (ED50: 0.00156, 0.00578, 2.35 mg/kg iv, respectively); ITZ (0.01 mg/kg iv) and MTZ (0.03 mg/kg iv) reduced behavioral activity and increased dialysate dopamine (DA) in the NAc shell (max. about 200% and 170% over basal value, respectively. Notably, ITZ elicited an increase in DA comparable to that of higher dose of morphine (1 mg/kg iv), but higher than the same dose of fentanyl (0.01 mg/kg iv). In silico, induced fit docking (IFD) and metadynamic simulations (MTD) showed that binding modes and structural changes at the receptor, ligand stability, and the overall energy score of NSOs were consistent with the results of the biological assays.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Graziella Tocco
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | | | - Antonio Laus
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Francesca Caria
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Aurora Musa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Nicholas Pintori
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Marcos Ucha
- Department of Psychobiology, National University for Distance Learning (UNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Celia Poza
- Department of Psychobiology, National University for Distance Learning (UNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Emilio Ambrosio
- Department of Psychobiology, National University for Distance Learning (UNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Gaetano Di Chiara
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy; CNR Institute of Neuroscience, Cagliari Section, University of Cagliari, Italy.
| | - M Paola Castelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Catalani V, Botha M, Corkery JM, Guirguis A, Vento A, Schifano F. Designer Benzodiazepines' Activity on Opioid Receptors: A Docking Study. Curr Pharm Des 2022; 28:2639-2652. [PMID: 35538798 DOI: 10.2174/1381612828666220510153319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies have reported that benzodiazepines (BZDs) seem to enhance euphoric and reinforcing properties of opioids in opioid users so that a direct effect on opioid receptors has been postulated, together with a possible synergistic induction of severe side effects due to co use of BDZs and opioids. This is particularly worrisome given the appearance on the market of designer benzodiazepines (DBZDs), whose activity/toxicity profiles are scarcely known. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to evaluate, through computational studies, the binding affinity (or lack thereof) of 101 DBZDs identified online on the kappa, mu, and delta opioid receptors (K, M, DOR); and to assess whether their mechanism of action could include activation of the latter. METHODS MOE® was used for the computational studies. Pharmacophore mapping based on strong opioids agonist binders' 3D chemical features was used to filter the DBZDs. Resultant DBZDs were docked into the crystallised 3D active conformation of KOR (PDB6B73), DOR (PDB6PT3) and MOR (PDB5C1M). Co-crystallised ligands and four strong agonists were used as reference compounds. A score (S, Kcal/mol) representative of the predicted binding affinity, and a description of ligand interactions were obtained from MOE®. RESULTS The docking results, filtered for S < -8.0 and the interaction with the Asp residue, identified five DBZDs as putative binders of the three ORs : ciclotizolam, fluloprazolam, JQ1, Ro 48-6791, and Ro 48-8684. CONCLUSION It may be inferred that at least some DBZDs may have the potential to activate opioid receptors. This could mediate/increase their anxiolytic, analgesic, and addiction potentials, as well as worsen the side effects associated with opioid co-use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Catalani
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life & Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle Botha
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life & Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - John Martin Corkery
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life & Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life & Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, United Kingdom.,Swansea University Medical School, The Grove, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Alessandro Vento
- Department of Mental Health, ASL Roma 2, Rome, Italy.,Addictions\' Observatory (ODDPSS), Rome, Italy.,Guglielmo Marconi' University, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life & Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Vaccaro G, Massariol A, Guirguis A, Kirton SB, Stair JL. NPS detection in Prison: a Systematic Literature Review of Use, Drug Form, and Analytical Approaches. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1350-1367. [PMID: 35355411 PMCID: PMC9545023 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents a systematic literature review on the detection of new psychoactive substances (NPS) in prison settings. It includes the most frequently reported NPS classes, the routes and forms used for smuggling, and the methods employed to analyze biological and non-biological samples. The search was carried out using MEDLINE (EBSCO), Scopus (ELSEVIER), PubMed (NCBI) and Web of Science (Clarivate) databases, along with reports from the grey literature in line with the PRISMA-S guidelines. A total of 2708 records were identified, of which 50 met the inclusion criteria. Findings showed the most prevalent NPS class reported in prison was synthetic cannabinoids (SCs). The most frequently reported SCs in non-biological samples were 4F-MDMB-BINACA, MDMB-4en-PINACA, and 5F-ADB. These were smuggled mainly through the postal services deposited on paper or herbal matrices. Concentrations of SCs detected on seized paper ranged between 0.05-1.17 mg/cm2 . The SCs most frequently reported in biological specimens (i.e., urine, blood, saliva, and wastewater) were 5F-MDMB-PICA, 4F-MDMB-BINACA and MDMB-4en-PINACA. Concentrations of SCs reported in femoral blood and serum were 0.12-0.48 ng/ml and 34-17 ng/ml, respectively. Hyphenated techniques were predominantly employed and generally successful for the detection of NPS in biological (i.e., LC-HRMS/MS) and non-biological samples (i.e., LC-HRMS/MS and GC-MS. The on-site technique IMS showed promise for detecting SCs in various forms, however immunoassays were not recommended. Future work should focus on accurate in-field detection of SCs deposited on paper and in urine and saliva to improve real-time decision-making, as well as wastewater and air monitoring for overall drug use trends.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Vaccaro
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Science, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Anna Massariol
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Science, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Science, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Swansea University Medical School, The Grove, Singleton Campus, Swansea, UK
| | - Stewart B Kirton
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Science, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Jacqueline L Stair
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Science, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Specka M, Kuhlmann T, Bonnet U, Sawazki J, Schaaf L, Kühnhold S, Steinert R, Grigoleit T, Eich H, Zeiske B, Niedersteberg A, Steiner K, Schifano F, Scherbaum N. Novel Synthetic Opioids (NSO) Use in Opioid Dependents Entering Detoxification Treatment. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:868346. [PMID: 35722574 PMCID: PMC9198264 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.868346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Over the last decade, the use of New/Novel Synthetic Opioids (NSO) has emerged as an increasing problem, and especially so in the USA. However, only little is known about the prevalence and history of NSO use in European heroin dependents. METHOD A cross-sectional multicenter study, carried out with the means of both standardized interviews and urine toxicology enhanced screening, in a sample of opioid addicted patients referred for an in-patient detoxification treatment. RESULTS Sample size included here n = 256 patients; prior to admission, 63.7% were prescribed with an opioid maintenance treatment. Lifetime use of heroin and opioid analgesics was reported by 99.2 and 30.4%, respectively. Lifetime NSO/fentanyl use was reported by 8.7% (n = 22); a regular use was reported by 1.6% (n = 4), and ingestion over the 30 days prior to admission by 0.8% (n = 2). Most typically, patients had started with a regular consumption of heroin, followed by maintenance opioids; opioid analgesics; and by NSO. Self-reported data were corroborated by the toxicology screenings carried out; no evidence was here identified for the presence of heroin being contaminated by fentanyl/derivatives. DISCUSSION NSO and also opioid analgesics did not play a relevant role in the development and the course of opioid/opioid use disorders in German patients referred for an inpatient detoxification treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Specka
- Department of Addictive Behaviour and Addiction Medicine, LVR Hospital Essen, Medical Faculty, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Thomas Kuhlmann
- Psychosomatic Hospital Bergisch Gladbach, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany
| | - Udo Bonnet
- Castrop-Rauxel Evangelic Hospital, Castrop-Rauxel, Germany
| | - Jürgen Sawazki
- Landschaftsverband Rheinland (LVR) Hospital Viersen, Viersen, Germany
| | - Luzia Schaaf
- Landschaftsverband Rheinland (LVR) Hospital Viersen, Viersen, Germany
| | - Stefan Kühnhold
- Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe (LWL) Hospital Lippstadt and Warstein, Warstein, Germany
| | - Renate Steinert
- Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe (LWL) Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Torsten Grigoleit
- Landschaftsverband Rheinland (LVR) Hospital Langenfeld, Langenfeld, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Katharina Steiner
- Department of Addictive Behaviour and Addiction Medicine, LVR Hospital Essen, Medical Faculty, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Norbert Scherbaum
- Department of Addictive Behaviour and Addiction Medicine, LVR Hospital Essen, Medical Faculty, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Scherbaum N, Seiffert F, Schifano F, Specka M, Bonnet U, Bender S. High lifetime, but low current, prevalence of new psychotropic substances (NPS) use in German drug detoxification treatment young inpatients. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2021; 111:110144. [PMID: 33091544 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Over the last 15 years, a large number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) has been identified, with their use being associated with a range of acute medical and psychopathological complications. Conversely, NPS addictive liability levels have not been systematically assessed in clinical populations. AIMS OF THE STUDY Investigating the lifetime and current prevalence of NPS use in a sample of substance use disorder (SUD) patients admitted to an inpatient detoxification treatment centre. METHODS Assessment of previous/current NPS intake carried out with the means of standardised questionnaire based on the European version of Addiction Severity Index. RESULTS Some 206 patients (males 77.1%; average age: 30.7 years-old; most typical diagnosis: opioid/polydrug dependence) participated to the survey. Roughly half (e.g. 111/206; 53.9%) of them reported a lifetime use of NPS, most typically synthetic cannabinoids. Conversely, the current prevalence of NPS use was 2.9%; no NPS dependence condition was diagnosed. Among NPS users, 56.3% reported severe side-effects such as heavy anxiety or psychotic experience, and 64% reported an aversion of ever using the respective NPS again, whilst 84.3% of those reporting a single NPS intake reported an aversion. DISCUSSION The sharp contrast between lifetime prevalence of NPS use and prevalence of current use might be explained by the high frequency of severe side effects reported by NPS users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Scherbaum
- LVR-Hospital Essen, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany.
| | - Friedrich Seiffert
- LWL-Klinik Marsberg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Marsberg, Germany
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- University of Hertfordshire, 'Psychopharmacology, Substance Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances' Research Unit, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Specka
- LVR-Hospital Essen, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Udo Bonnet
- LVR-Hospital Essen, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany; Evangelisches Krankenhaus Castrop-Rauxel, Klinik für Psychiatrie, Psychotherapie und Psychosomatische Medizin, Castrop-Rauxel, Germany
| | - Stefan Bender
- LWL-Klinik Marsberg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Marsberg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Scheibein F, Donnelly W, Wells JS. Assessing open science and citizen science in addictions and substance use research: A scoping review. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2021; 100:103505. [PMID: 34753045 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The EU promotes 'Open Science' as a public good. Complementary to its implementation is Citizen Science, which redefines the relationship between the scientific community, civic society and the individual. Open Science and Citizen Science poses challenges for the substance use and addictions research community but may provide positive opportunities for future European addiction research. This paper explores both current barriers and potential facilitators for the implementation of Open Science and Citizen Science in substance use and addictions research. METHODOLOGY A scoping review was used to examine barriers and facilitators identified in the substance use and addiction research literature for the adoption of Open Science and Citizen Science. RESULTS 'Technical' facilitators included the pre-registration of study protocols; publication of open-source datasets; open peer review and online tools. 'Motivational' facilitators included enhanced reputation; embracing co-creation; engaged citizenship and gamification. 'Economic' facilitators included the use of free tools and balanced remuneration of crowdworkers. 'Political' facilitators included better informed debates through the 'triple helix' approach and trust-generating transparency. 'Legal' facilitators included epidemiologically informed law enforcement; better policy surveillance and the validation of other datasets. 'Ethical' facilitators included the 'democratisation of science' and opportunities to explore new concepts of ethics in addiction research. CONCLUSION Open Science and Citizen Science in substance use and addictions research may provide a range of benefits in relation to the democratisation of science; transparency; efficiency and the reliability/validity of data. However, its implementation raises a range of research integrity and ethical issues that need be considered. These include issues related to participant recruitment; privacy; confidentiality; security; cost and industry involvement. Progressive journal policies to support Open Science practices; a shift in researcher norms; the use of free tools and the greater availability of methodological and ethical standards are likely to increase adoption in the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florian Scheibein
- School of Health Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Cork Road, Waterford, Co. Waterford, Ireland.
| | - William Donnelly
- Office of the President, Waterford Institute of Technology, Cork Road, Waterford, Co. Waterford, Ireland
| | - John Sg Wells
- School of Health Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Cork Road, Waterford, Co. Waterford, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Psychonauts' psychedelics: A systematic, multilingual, web-crawling exercise. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2021; 49:69-92. [PMID: 33857740 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Psychedelics alter the perception of reality through agonist or partial agonist interaction with the 2A serotoninergic receptor. They are classified as phenethylamines, tryptamines and lysergamides. These classes, according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), account for an important percentage of the new psychoactive substances (NPS) current scenario.The paper aimed at: a) identifying and categorising psychedelic molecules from a list of psychonaut websites and NPS online resources; and b) comparing the NPSfinderⓇ results with those from the European and United Nations databases. A crawling software (i.e. 'NPSfinderⓇ') was created to automatically scan, 24/7, a list of URLs and to extract a range of information (chemical/street names, chemical formulae, etc.) to facilitate NPS identification. Data collected were manually analysed and compared with the EMCDDA and UNODC databases.The overall number of psychedelic NPS detected by NPSfinderⓇ (November 2017-February 2020) was 1344, almost ten-times higher than that reported by the UNODC and EMCDDA combined. Of these, 994 previously unknown molecules were identified as (potential) novel psychedelics, suggesting a strong discrepancy between online and real-world NPS scenarios. The results show the interest of psychonauts, and maybe of the much larger community of 'recreational' drug users, towards psychedelics. Moreover, examining online scenario may help in assessing the availability in the real world of psychedelic NPS; understanding drug trends; and in possibly predicting future drug scenarios.
Collapse
|
10
|
The Psychonauts' Benzodiazepines; Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) Analysis and Docking Prediction of Their Biological Activity. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14080720. [PMID: 34451817 PMCID: PMC8398354 DOI: 10.3390/ph14080720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Designer benzodiazepines (DBZDs) represent a serious health concern and are increasingly reported in polydrug consumption-related fatalities. When new DBZDs are identified, very limited information is available on their pharmacodynamics. Here, computational models (i.e., quantitative structure-activity relationship/QSAR and Molecular Docking) were used to analyse DBZDs identified online by an automated web crawler (NPSfinder®) and to predict their possible activity/affinity on the gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptors (GABA-ARs). The computational software MOE was used to calculate 2D QSAR models, perform docking studies on crystallised GABA-A receptors (6HUO, 6HUP) and generate pharmacophore queries from the docking conformational results. 101 DBZDs were identified online by NPSfinder®. The validated QSAR model predicted high biological activity values for 41% of these DBDZs. These predictions were supported by the docking studies (good binding affinity) and the pharmacophore modelling confirmed the importance of the presence and location of hydrophobic and polar functions identified by QSAR. This study confirms once again the importance of web-based analysis in the assessment of drug scenarios (DBZDs), and how computational models could be used to acquire fast and reliable information on biological activity for index novel DBZDs, as preliminary data for further investigations.
Collapse
|
11
|
Arillotta D, Guirguis A, Corkery JM, Scherbaum N, Schifano F. COVID-19 Pandemic Impact on Substance Misuse: A Social Media Listening, Mixed Method Analysis. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11070907. [PMID: 34356142 PMCID: PMC8303488 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11070907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The restrictive measures adopted during the COVID-19 pandemic modified some previously consolidated drug use patterns. A focus on social networks allowed drug users to discuss, share opinions and provide advice during a worldwide emergency context. In order to explore COVID-19-related implications on drug trends/behaviour and on most popular psychotropic substances debated, the focus here was on the constantly updated, very popular, Reddit social platform’s posts and comments. A quantitative and qualitative analysis of r/Drugs and related subreddits, using a social media listening netnographic approach, was carried out. The post/comments analysed covered the time-frame December 2019–May 2020. Between December 2019 and May 2020, the number of whole r/Drugs subreddit members increased from 619,563 to 676,581 members, respectively, thus increasing by 9.2% by the end of the data collection. Both the top-level r/Drugs subreddit and 92 related subreddits were quantitatively analysed, with posts/comments related to 12 drug categories. The drugs most frequently commented on included cannabinoids, psychedelics, opiates/opioids, alcohol, stimulants and prescribed medications. The qualitative analysis was carried out focussing on four subreddits, relating to some 1685 posts and 3263 comments. Four main themes of discussion (e.g., lockdown-associated immunity and drug intake issues; drug-related behaviour/after-quarantine plans’ issues; lockdown-related psychopathological issues; and peer-to-peer advice at the time of COVID-19) and four categories of Redditors (e.g., those continuing the use of drugs despite the pandemic; the “couch epidemiologists”; the conspirationists/pseudo-science influencers; and the recovery-focused users) were tentatively identified here. A mixed-methods, social network-based analysis provided a range of valuable information on Redditors’ drug use/behaviour during the first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. Further studies should be carried out focusing on other social networks as well as later phases of the pandemic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Davide Arillotta
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (D.A.); (A.G.); (J.M.C.); (F.S.)
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (D.A.); (A.G.); (J.M.C.); (F.S.)
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - John Martin Corkery
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (D.A.); (A.G.); (J.M.C.); (F.S.)
| | - Norbert Scherbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, LVR-Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Virchowstraße 174, 45147 Essen, Germany
- Correspondence:
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK; (D.A.); (A.G.); (J.M.C.); (F.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
The e-psychonaut drugs' psychopharmacology. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2021; 57:165-174. [PMID: 33774473 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2021.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The focus here was on the pharmacological and clinical pharmacological issues pertaining to the vast range of drugs (e.g. synthetic cannabimimetics, synthetic opioids, novel stimulants, novel psychedelics, PCP/ketamine-like compounds, prescribed medicinal compounds and popular psychotropic herbs/plants) discussed by Internet-based enthusiasts of new/novel psychoactive substances (NPS), 'e-psychonauts'. Currently ongoing related in silico studies, followed by further in vitro and in vivo/preclinical studies, will hopefully provide important findings in terms of which molecules within each given NPS class may present with higher levels of receptor affinities, and hence clinical potency. Understanding the pharmacological characteristics/potency of those novel recreational molecules will hopefully help in predicting related NPS diffusion, morbidity and possible lethality data.
Collapse
|
13
|
Salmanzadeh H, Ahmadi-Soleimani SM, Azadi M, Halliwell RF, Azizi H. Adolescent Substance Abuse, Transgenerational Consequences and Epigenetics. Curr Neuropharmacol 2021; 19:1560-1569. [PMID: 33655865 PMCID: PMC8762180 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x19666210303121519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood and a critical period in brain development. Adolescence in humans is also associated with increased expression of risk-taking behaviors. Epidemiological and clinical studies, for example, show a surge of drug abuse and raise the hypothesis that the adolescent brain undergoes critical changes resulting in diminished control. Determining how substance abuse during this critical period might cause longterm neurobiological changes in cognition and behavior is therefore critically important. The present work aims to provide an evaluation of the transgenerational and multi-generational phenotypes derived from parent animals exposed to drugs of abuse only during their adolescence. Specifically, we will consider changes found following the administration of cannabinoids, nicotine, alcohol and opiates. In addition, epigenetic modifications of the genome following drug exposure will be discussed as emerging evidence of the underlying adverse transgenerational effects. Notwithstanding, much of the new data discussed here is from animal models, indicating that future clinical studies are much needed to better understand the neurobiological consequences and mechanisms of drug actions on the human brains' development and maturation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Robert F. Halliwell
- Address correspondence to this author at the TJ Long School of Pharmacy, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California, USA; Tel: +1 (209) 946 2074; E-mail: and Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; Tel: +98-21-82884587; Fax: +98-21-82884528; E-mail:
| | - Hossein Azizi
- Address correspondence to this author at the TJ Long School of Pharmacy, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California, USA; Tel: +1 (209) 946 2074; E-mail: and Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; Tel: +98-21-82884587; Fax: +98-21-82884528; E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Scherbaum N, Bonnet U, Hafermann H, Schifano F, Bender S, Grigoleit T, Kuhn J, Nyhuis P, Preuss UW, Reymann G, Schneider U, Shibata J, Specka M. Availability of Illegal Drugs During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Western Germany. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:648273. [PMID: 33967857 PMCID: PMC8102785 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.648273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: In response to the COVID-19-pandemic, a lockdown was established in the middle of March 2020 by the German Federal Government resulting in drastic reduction of private and professional traveling in and out of Germany with a reduction of social contacts in public areas. Research Questions: We seek evidence on whether the lockdown has led to a reduced availability of illegal drugs and whether subjects with substance-related problems tried to cope with possible drug availability issues by increasingly obtaining drugs via the internet, replacing their preferred illegal drug with novel psychoactive substances, including new synthetic opioids (NSO), and/or by seeking drug treatment. Methods: A questionnaire was anonymously filled in by subjects with substance-related disorders, typically attending low-threshold settings, drug consumption facilities, and inpatient detoxification wards from a range of locations in the Western part of Germany. Participants had to both identify their main drug of abuse and to answer questions regarding its availability, price, quality, and routes of acquisition. Results: Data were obtained from 362 participants. The most frequent main substances of abuse were cannabis (n = 109), heroin (n = 103), and cocaine (n = 75). A minority of participants reported decreased availability (8.4%), increased price (14.4%), or decreased quality (28.3%) of their main drug. About 81% reported no change in their drug consumption due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown. A shift to the use of novel psychoactive substances including NSO were reported only by single subjects. Only 1-2% of the participants obtained their main drug via the web. Discussion: Present findings may suggest that recent pandemic-related imposed restrictions may have not been able to substantially influence either acquisition or consumption of drugs within the context of polydrug users (including opiates) attending a range of addiction services in Germany.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Scherbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, LVR-Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Udo Bonnet
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, LVR-Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany.,Klinik für Psychiatrie, Psychotherapie und Psychosomatische Medizin, Evangelisches Krankenhaus Castrop-Rauxel, Castrop-Rauxel, Germany
| | - Henning Hafermann
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, LVR-Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Substance Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Stefan Bender
- Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, LWL-Klinik Marsberg, Marsberg, Germany
| | - Torsten Grigoleit
- Abteilung für Abhängigkeitserkrankungen, LVR-Klinik Langenfeld, Langenfeld, Germany
| | - Jens Kuhn
- Klinik für Psychiatrie, Psychotherapie und Psychosomatik, Johanniter Krankenhaus Oberhausen, Oberhausen, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Peter Nyhuis
- Klinik für Psychiatrie, Psychotherapie und Psychosomatik, St. Marien Hospital Eickel, Herne, Germany
| | - Ulrich W Preuss
- Vitos-Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Herborn, Germany
| | | | - Udo Schneider
- Medizinisches Zentrum für Seelische Gesundheit, Krankenhaus Lübbecke-Rahden, Lübbecke, Germany
| | - Jo Shibata
- Substitution Outpatient Clinic, Health Department of the City of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Michael Specka
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, LVR-Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Stigliano G, Miuli A, Vizziello A, Altomare AI, Lalli A, Alessi MC, Sociali A, Rucco A, Vannini C, Martinotti G, di Giannantonio M. Use and knowledge of novel synthetic opioids: An Italian survey. J Ethn Subst Abuse 2020; 21:1-11. [PMID: 33315542 DOI: 10.1080/15332640.2020.1852143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The recreational use of novel synthetic opioids (NSOs) is increasing, especially among the youngest part of the population. We conducted a naturalistic observational survey. The main outcome was to assess the use and the knowledge of NSOs among the youngest population in Italy. A sociodemographic questionnaire was also administrated. Nine hundred twenty questionnaires were completed. Fentanyl was the most used NSO (1.63% of the subjects). In all, 14.3% of the sample revealed awareness of NSOs. Although the diffusion in Italy is small, the large knowledge of NSOs requires future monitoring of this phenomenon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Giovanni Martinotti
- "G. d'Annunzio" University, Chieti, Italy
- University of Hertfordshire, Herts, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Schifano F. Coming Off Prescribed Psychotropic Medications: Insights from Their Use as Recreational Drugs. PSYCHOTHERAPY AND PSYCHOSOMATICS 2020; 89:274-282. [PMID: 32615566 DOI: 10.1159/000507897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom,
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Napoletano F, Schifano F, Corkery JM, Guirguis A, Arillotta D, Zangani C, Vento A. The Psychonauts' World of Cognitive Enhancers. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:546796. [PMID: 33024436 PMCID: PMC7516264 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.546796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is growing availability of novel psychoactive substances (NPS), including cognitive enhancers (CEs) which can be used in the treatment of certain mental health disorders. While treating cognitive deficit symptoms in neuropsychiatric or neurodegenerative disorders using CEs might have significant benefits for patients, the increasing recreational use of these substances by healthy individuals raises many clinical, medico-legal, and ethical issues. Moreover, it has become very challenging for clinicians to keep up-to-date with CEs currently available as comprehensive official lists do not exist. METHODS Using a web crawler (NPSfinder®), the present study aimed at assessing psychonaut fora/platforms to better understand the online situation regarding CEs. We compared NPSfinder® entries with those from the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) NPS databases up to spring 2019. Any substance that was identified by NPSfinder® was considered a CE if it was either described as having nootropic abilities by psychonauts or if it was listed among the known CEs by Froestl and colleagues. RESULTS A total of 142 unique CEs were identified by NPSfinder®. They were divided into 10 categories, including plants/herbs/products (29%), prescribed drugs (17%), image and performance enhancing drugs (IPEDs) (15%), psychostimulants (15%), miscellaneous (8%), Phenethylamines (6%), GABAergic drugs (5%), cannabimimetic (4%), tryptamines derivatives (0.5%), and piperazine derivatives (0.5%). A total of 105 chemically different substances were uniquely identified by NPSfinder®. Only one CE was uniquely identified by the EMCDDA; no CE was uniquely identified by the UNODC. CONCLUSIONS These results show that NPSfinder® is helpful as part of an Early Warning System, which could update clinicians with the growing numbers and types of nootropics in the increasingly difficult-to-follow internet world. Improving clinicians' knowledge of NPS could promote more effective prevention and harm reduction measures in clinical settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Napoletano
- Department of Mental Health, Homerton University Hospital, East London Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - John Martin Corkery
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Davide Arillotta
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
- Psychiatry Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Caroline Zangani
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandro Vento
- Department of Mental Health, Addictions’ Observatory (ODDPSS), Rome, Italy
- Department of Mental Health, Guglielmo Marconi” University, Rome, Italy
- Department of Mental Health, ASL Roma 2, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
In vitro functional characterization of a panel of non-fentanyl opioid new psychoactive substances. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:3819-3830. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02855-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
19
|
Schifano F. Analyzing the Open/Deep Web to Better Understand the New/Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) Scenarios: Suggestions from CASSANDRA and NPS.Finder Research Projects. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10030146. [PMID: 32143298 PMCID: PMC7139937 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10030146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Health Research Building, College Lane Campus, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Catalani V, Arillotta D, Corkery JM, Guirguis A, Vento A, Schifano F. Identifying New/Emerging Psychoactive Substances at the Time of COVID-19; A Web-Based Approach. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:632405. [PMID: 33633599 PMCID: PMC7900492 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.632405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
COVID-19-related disruptions of people and goods' circulation can affect drug markets, especially for new psychoactive substances (NPSs). Drug shortages could cause a change in available NPS, with the introduction of new, unknown, substances. The aims of the current research were to use a web crawler, NPSfinder®, to identify and categorize emerging NPS discussed on a range of drug enthusiasts/psychonauts' websites/fora at the time of the pandemic; social media for these identified NPS were screened as well. The NPSfinder® was used here to automatically scan 24/7 a list of psychonaut websites and NPS online resources. The NPSs identified in the time frame between January and August 2020 were searched in both the European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addictions (EMCDDA)/United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) databases and on social media (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Pinterest, and YouTube) as well, with a content qualitative analysis having been carried out on reddit.com. Of a total of 229 NPSs being discussed at the time of the pandemic, some 18 NPSs were identified for the first time by the NPSfinder®. These included six cathinones, six opioids, two synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs), two phenylcyclohexylpiperidine (PCP)-like molecules, and two psychedelics. Of these NPSs, 10 were found to be previously unreported to either the UNODC or the EMCDDA. Of these 18 NPSs, opioids and cathinones were the most discussed on social media/reddit, with the highest number of threads associated. Current findings may support the use of both automated web crawlers and social listening approaches to identify emerging NPSs; the pandemic-related imposed restrictions may somehow influence the demand for specific NPS classes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Catalani
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life & Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Davide Arillotta
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life & Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - John Martin Corkery
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life & Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life & Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom.,Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Alessandro Vento
- Department of Mental Health, ASL Roma 2, Rome, Italy.,Addictions' Observatory (ODDPSS), Rome, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Guglielmo Marconi University, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life & Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|