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Bratsch-Prince JX, Warren JW, Jones GC, McDonald AJ, Mott DD. Acetylcholine Engages Distinct Amygdala Microcircuits to Gate Internal Theta Rhythm. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e1568232024. [PMID: 38438258 PMCID: PMC11055655 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1568-23.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Acetylcholine (ACh) is released from basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in response to salient stimuli and engages brain states supporting attention and memory. These high ACh states are associated with theta oscillations, which synchronize neuronal ensembles. Theta oscillations in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) in both humans and rodents have been shown to underlie emotional memory, yet their mechanism remains unclear. Here, using brain slice electrophysiology in male and female mice, we show large ACh stimuli evoke prolonged theta oscillations in BLA local field potentials that depend upon M3 muscarinic receptor activation of cholecystokinin (CCK) interneurons (INs) without the need for external glutamate signaling. Somatostatin (SOM) INs inhibit CCK INs and are themselves inhibited by ACh, providing a functional SOM→CCK IN circuit connection gating BLA theta. Parvalbumin (PV) INs, which can drive BLA oscillations in baseline states, are not involved in the generation of ACh-induced theta, highlighting that ACh induces a cellular switch in the control of BLA oscillatory activity and establishes an internally BLA-driven theta oscillation through CCK INs. Theta activity is more readily evoked in BLA over the cortex or hippocampus, suggesting preferential activation of the BLA during high ACh states. These data reveal a SOM→CCK IN circuit in the BLA that gates internal theta oscillations and suggest a mechanism by which salient stimuli acting through ACh switch the BLA into a network state enabling emotional memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua X Bratsch-Prince
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina 29208
| | - James W Warren
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina 29208
| | - Grace C Jones
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina 29208
| | - Alexander J McDonald
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina 29208
| | - David D Mott
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina 29208
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2
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BDNF, proBDNF and IGF-1 serum levels in naïve and medicated subjects with autism. Sci Rep 2022; 12:13768. [PMID: 35962006 PMCID: PMC9374711 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-17503-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) promote the development and maintenance of neural circuits. Alterations in these factors might contribute to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We asked whether serum BDNF, proBDNF, and IGF-1 levels are altered in an ASD population compared to controls. We measured serum BDNF, proBDNF, and IGF-1 immunoreactive protein in boys and girls aged 5–15 years old with mild to moderate ASD and non-autistic controls by ELISA. IGF-1 was increased in ASD serum compared to controls and was correlated with age and with CARS scores. Serum BDNF levels did not differ between groups, however, proBDNF serum levels were decreased in subjects with ASD compared to non-autistic controls. Medicated, but not unmedicated, ASD subjects exhibited lower serum proBDNF levels compared to controls, while neither IGF-1 nor BDNF levels differed between treatment groups. These data support the involvement of proBDNF and IGF-1 in the pathogenesis and treatment of autism.
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3
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PharmGKB summary: methylphenidate pathway, pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2019; 29:136-154. [PMID: 30950912 DOI: 10.1097/fpc.0000000000000376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Robins MT, Blaine AT, Ha JE, Brewster AL, van Rijn RM. Repeated Use of the Psychoactive Substance Ethylphenidate Impacts Neurochemistry and Reward Learning in Adolescent Male and Female Mice. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:124. [PMID: 30837836 PMCID: PMC6389692 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Schedule II prescription psychostimulants, such as methylphenidate (MPH), can be misused as nootropic drugs, i.e., drugs that enhance focus and cognition. When users are unable to obtain these prescribed medications, they may seek out novel psychoactive substances (NPSs) that are not yet scheduled. An example of a NPS reportedly being abused is ethylphenidate (EPH), a close analog of MPH but with a higher preference for the dopamine transporter compared with the norepinephrine transporter. Therefore, based upon this pharmacological profile and user self-reports, we hypothesized that repeated EPH exposure in adolescent mice may be rewarding and alter cognition. Here, we report that repeated exposure to 15 mg/kg EPH decreased spatial cognitive performance as assessed by the Barnes maze spatial learning task in adolescent male C57Bl/6 mice; however, male mice did not show alterations in the expression of mature BDNF - a protein associated with increased cognitive function - in key brain regions. Acute EPH exposure induced hyperlocomotion at a high dose (15 mg/kg, i.p.), but not a low dose (5 mg/kg, i.p.). Interestingly, mice exhibited significant conditioned place preference at the low EPH dose, suggesting that even non-stimulating doses of EPH are rewarding. In both males and females, repeated EPH exposure increased expression of deltaFosB - a marker associated with increased risk of drug abuse - in the dorsal striatum, nucleus accumbens, and prefrontal cortex. Overall, our results suggest that repeated EPH use in adolescence is psychostimulatory, rewarding, increases crucial brain markers of reward-related behaviors, and may negatively impact spatial performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meridith T Robins
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Arryn T Blaine
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Interdisciplinary Life Sciences Graduate Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Jiwon E Ha
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Amy L Brewster
- Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Interdisciplinary Life Sciences Graduate Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Richard M van Rijn
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Interdisciplinary Life Sciences Graduate Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
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5
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Barfield ET, Gourley SL. Prefrontal cortical trkB, glucocorticoids, and their interactions in stress and developmental contexts. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 95:535-558. [PMID: 30477984 PMCID: PMC6392187 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The tropomyosin/tyrosine receptor kinase B (trkB) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) regulate neuron structure and function and the hormonal stress response. Meanwhile, disruption of trkB and GR activity (e.g., by chronic stress) can perturb neuronal morphology in cortico-limbic regions implicated in stressor-related illnesses like depression. Further, several of the short- and long-term neurobehavioral consequences of stress depend on the developmental timing and context of stressor exposure. We review how the levels and activities of trkB and GR in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) change during development, interact, are modulated by stress, and are implicated in depression. We review evidence that trkB- and GR-mediated signaling events impact the density and morphology of dendritic spines, the primary sites of excitatory synapses in the brain, highlighting effects in adolescents when possible. Finally, we review the role of neurotrophin and glucocorticoid systems in stress-related metaplasticity. We argue that better understanding the long-term effects of developmental stressors on PFC trkB, GR, and related factors may yield insights into risk for chronic, remitting depression and related neuropsychiatric illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth T Barfield
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA; Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.
| | - Shannon L Gourley
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA; Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA; Molecular and Systems Pharmacology Program, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.
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6
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Jordan CJ, Andersen SL. Working memory and salivary brain-derived neurotrophic factor as developmental predictors of cocaine seeking in male and female rats. Addict Biol 2018; 23:868-879. [PMID: 28857460 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2017] [Revised: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Poor working memory is linked to future risk-taking behaviors. Lifelong risk of habitual drug use is highest in individuals who initiate use in early adolescence. We sought to determine in rats whether juvenile traits, specifically poor working memory and low salivary brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), are related to elevated cocaine taking and relapse in adolescence and adulthood. On postnatal day (P) 20, working memory was assessed using the novel object recognition task in male and female rats. Saliva was assayed at P20 for BDNF before cocaine self-administration on P28 [0.75 or 0.25 mg/kg/infusion for 30 days under a fixed-ratio (FR) 1 to FR5 schedule] and on P94 before relapse after 30-day abstinence in adulthood. A separate cohort of P28 male rats was assayed for object discrimination and BDNF in saliva and the medial prefrontal cortex and dorsolateral striatum. Novel object discrimination correlated positively with salivary BDNF on P20 and dorsolateral striatum levels, but negatively with medial prefrontal cortex BDNF in male rats. In female rats, P20 salivary BDNF negatively correlated with object discrimination. Salivary BDNF positively correlated across age in male rats. Male rats earned more cocaine (0.75 mg/kg) at FR5 and responded more at relapse than did female rats. These elevated relapse rates in male rats were significantly associated with P20 object discrimination and salivary BDNF. Relapse after 0.75 and 0.25 mg/kg in female rats correlated only with object discrimination. In conclusion, poor working memory and low salivary BDNF in juvenile male rats may represent biomarkers for later cocaine use. Further research is needed to identify biomarkers for risk in male rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe J. Jordan
- Department of Psychiatry; McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School; Belmont MA USA
| | - Susan L. Andersen
- Department of Psychiatry; McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School; Belmont MA USA
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7
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Rocha A, Hart N, Trujillo KA. Differences between adolescents and adults in the acute effects of PCP and ketamine and in sensitization following intermittent administration. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2017; 157:24-34. [PMID: 28442368 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2017.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Revised: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Adolescence is a phase of development during which many physiological and behavioral changes occur, including increased novelty seeking and risk taking. In humans, this is reflected in experimentation with drugs. Research demonstrates that drug use that begins during adolescence is more likely to lead to addiction than drug use that begins later in life. Despite this, relatively little is known of the effects of drugs in adolescence, and differences in response between adolescents and adults. PCP and ketamine are popular club drugs, both possessing rewarding properties that could lead to escalating use. Drug sensitization (or reverse tolerance), which refers to an increase in an effect of a drug following repeated use, has been linked with the development of drug cravings that is a hallmark of addiction. The current work investigated the acute response and the development of sensitization to PCP and ketamine in adolescent and adult rats. Periadolescent Sprague-Dawley rats (30days or 38days of age), and young adults (60days of age) received PCP (6mg/kg IP) or ketamine (20mg/kg IP) once every three days, for a total of five drug injections. Adolescents and adults showed a stimulant response to the first injection of either drug, however the response was considerably greater in the youngest adolescents and lowest in the adults. With repeated administration, adults showed a robust escalation in activity that was indicative of the development of sensitization. Adolescents showed a flatter trajectory, with similar high levels of activity following an acute treatment and after five drug treatments. The results demonstrate important distinctions between adolescents and adults in the acute and repeated effects of PCP and ketamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelica Rocha
- Office for Training Research, and Education in the Sciences, California State University San Marcos, CA 92096, USA
| | - Nigel Hart
- Office for Training Research, and Education in the Sciences, California State University San Marcos, CA 92096, USA
| | - Keith A Trujillo
- Office for Training Research, and Education in the Sciences, California State University San Marcos, CA 92096, USA; Department of Psychology, California State University San Marcos, CA 92096, USA.
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8
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Methylphenidate effects in the young brain: friend or foe? Int J Dev Neurosci 2017; 60:34-47. [PMID: 28412445 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2017.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent neuropsychiatry disorders in children and adolescents, and methylphenidate (MPH) is a first-line stimulant drug available worldwide for its treatment. Despite the proven therapeutic efficacy, concerns have been raised regarding the possible consequences of chronic MPH exposure during childhood and adolescence. Disturbances in the neurodevelopment at these crucial stages are major concerns given the unknown future life consequences. This review is focused on the long-term adverse effects of MPH to the brain biochemistry. Reports conducted with young and/or adolescent animals and studies with humans are reviewed in the context of long-term consequences after early life-exposure. MPH pharmacokinetics is also reviewed as there are differences among laboratory animals and humans that may be relevant to extrapolate the findings. Studies reveal that exposure to MPH in laboratory animals during young and/or adolescent ages can impact the brain, but the outcomes are dependent on MPH dose, treatment period, and animal's age. Importantly, the female sex is largely overlooked in both animal and human studies. Unfortunately, human reports that evaluate adults following adolescent or child exposure to MPH are very scarce. In general, human data indicates that MPH is generally safe, although it can promote several brain changes in early ages. Even so, there is a lack of long course patient evaluation to clearly establish whether MPH-induced changes are friendly or foe to the brain and more human studies are needed to assess the adult brain changes that arise from early MPH treatment.
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Hawi Z, Cummins TDR, Tong J, Arcos-Burgos M, Zhao Q, Matthews N, Newman DP, Johnson B, Vance A, Heussler HS, Levy F, Easteal S, Wray NR, Kenny E, Morris D, Kent L, Gill M, Bellgrove MA. Rare DNA variants in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene increase risk for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a next-generation sequencing study. Mol Psychiatry 2017; 22:580-584. [PMID: 27457811 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2016.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Revised: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent and highly heritable disorder of childhood with negative lifetime outcomes. Although candidate gene and genome-wide association studies have identified promising common variant signals, these explain only a fraction of the heritability of ADHD. The observation that rare structural variants confer substantial risk to psychiatric disorders suggests that rare variants might explain a portion of the missing heritability for ADHD. Here we believe we performed the first large-scale next-generation targeted sequencing study of ADHD in 152 child and adolescent cases and 188 controls across an a priori set of 117 genes. A multi-marker gene-level analysis of rare (<1% frequency) single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) revealed that the gene encoding brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was associated with ADHD at Bonferroni corrected levels. Sanger sequencing confirmed the existence of all novel rare BDNF variants. Our results implicate BDNF as a genetic risk factor for ADHD, potentially by virtue of its critical role in neurodevelopment and synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Hawi
- School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute for Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - T D R Cummins
- School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute for Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - J Tong
- School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute for Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - M Arcos-Burgos
- John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Q Zhao
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - N Matthews
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - D P Newman
- School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute for Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - B Johnson
- School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute for Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - A Vance
- Academic Child Psychiatry Unit, Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - H S Heussler
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - F Levy
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Child and Family East, Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, NSW, Australia
| | - S Easteal
- John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - N R Wray
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - E Kenny
- Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research Group, Department of Psychiatry and Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - D Morris
- Department of Biochemistry, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - L Kent
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Scotland, UK
| | - M Gill
- Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research Group, Department of Psychiatry and Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - M A Bellgrove
- School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute for Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences (MICCN), Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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BDNF concentrations and daily fluctuations differ among ADHD children and respond differently to methylphenidate with no relationship with depressive symptomatology. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:267-279. [PMID: 27807606 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4460-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) enhances the growth and maintenance of several monoamine neuronal systems, serves as a neurotransmitter modulator and participates in the mechanisms of neuronal plasticity. Therefore, BDNF is a good candidate for interventions in the pathogenesis and/or treatment response of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). OBJECTIVE We quantified the basal concentration and daily fluctuation of serum BDNF, as well as changes after methylphenidate treatment. METHOD A total of 148 children, 4-5 years old, were classified into groups as follows: ADHD group (n = 107, DSM-IV-TR criteria) and a control group (CG, n = 41). Blood samples were drawn at 2000 and 0900 hours from both groups, and after 4.63 ± 2.3 months of treatment, blood was drawn only from the ADHD group for BDNF measurements. Factorial analysis was performed (Stata software, version 12.0). RESULTS Morning BDNF (36.36 ± 11.62 ng/ml) in the CG was very similar to that in the predominantly inattentive children (PAD), although the evening concentration in the CG was higher (CG 31.78 ± 11.92 vs PAD 26.41 ± 11.55 ng/ml). The hyperactive-impulsive group, including patients with comorbid conduct disorder (PHI/CD), had lower concentrations. Methylphenidate (MPH) did not modify the concentration or the absence of daily BDNF fluctuations in the PHI/CD children; however, MPH induced a significant decrease in BDNF in PAD and basal day/night fluctuations disappeared in this ADHD subtype. This profile was not altered by the presence of depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS Our data support a reduction in BDNF in untreated ADHD due to the lower concentrations in PHI/CD children, which is similar to other psychopathologic and cognitive disorders. MPH decreased BDNF only in the PAD group, which might indicate that BDNF is not directly implicated in the methylphenidate-induced amelioration of the neuropsychological and organic immaturity of ADHD patients.
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Lukkes JL, Freund N, Thompson BS, Meda S, Andersen SL. Preventative treatment in an animal model of ADHD: Behavioral and biochemical effects of methylphenidate and its interactions with ovarian hormones in female rats. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2016; 26:1496-1506. [PMID: 27397110 PMCID: PMC5204118 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Clinical and preclinical studies on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) show that juvenile males that are exposed to methylphenidate (MPH) show reduced risk for substance use later in life. In contrast, little is known about whether females have the same enduring treatment response to stimulants and how gonadal hormones influence their behavior later in life. Females received either a sham or 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) microinjection in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) at postnatal day (P)10. Subjects were then treated with Vehicle or MPH (2mg/kg, p.o.) between P20-35 and tested during late adolescence/young adulthood (P60); half of these subjects underwent ovariectomy at P55 to determine hormonal influences. Females with 6-OHDA were depleted of PFC dopamine by 61% and demonstrated increased impulsive choice (delayed discounting) and preferences for cocaine-associated environments relative to control females. Both MPH and ovariectomy reduced impulsive choice and cocaine preferences in 6-OHDA females, but had no enduring effect in Sham females. Ovariectomy itself did not significantly affect impulsivity. Juvenile MPH interacted strongly with 6-OHDA to increase D4, D5, Alpha-1A, Alpha-2A, and 5-HT-1A mRNA receptor expression in the PFC. MPH alone effected D1 mRNA, while 6-OHDA increased BDNF; all markers were decreased by ovariectomy. Together, these data suggest that 6-OHDA changes in dopamine are not only relevant for ADHD-like behaviors, but their long-term modulation by treatment and the influence of cyclical differences in menstrual cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodi L Lukkes
- Laboratory for Developmental Neuropharmacology, McLean Hospital, USA; Harvard Medical School, USA
| | - Nadja Freund
- Laboratory for Developmental Neuropharmacology, McLean Hospital, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Britta S Thompson
- Laboratory for Developmental Neuropharmacology, McLean Hospital, USA
| | - Shirisha Meda
- Laboratory for Developmental Neuropharmacology, McLean Hospital, USA
| | - Susan L Andersen
- Laboratory for Developmental Neuropharmacology, McLean Hospital, USA; Harvard Medical School, USA.
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12
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Schrantee A, Tamminga HGH, Bouziane C, Bottelier MA, Bron EE, Mutsaerts HJMM, Zwinderman AH, Groote IR, Rombouts SARB, Lindauer RJL, Klein S, Niessen WJ, Opmeer BC, Boer F, Lucassen PJ, Andersen SL, Geurts HM, Reneman L. Age-Dependent Effects of Methylphenidate on the Human Dopaminergic System in Young vs Adult Patients With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2016; 73:955-62. [PMID: 27487479 PMCID: PMC5267166 DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.1572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Although numerous children receive methylphenidate hydrochloride for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), little is known about age-dependent and possibly lasting effects of methylphenidate on the human dopaminergic system. OBJECTIVES To determine whether the effects of methylphenidate on the dopaminergic system are modified by age and to test the hypothesis that methylphenidate treatment of young but not adult patients with ADHD induces lasting effects on the cerebral blood flow response to dopamine challenge, a noninvasive probe for dopamine function. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (Effects of Psychotropic Drugs on Developing Brain-Methylphenidate) among ADHD referral centers in the greater Amsterdam area in the Netherlands between June 1, 2011, and June 15, 2015. Additional inclusion criteria were male sex, age 10 to 12 years or 23 to 40 years, and stimulant treatment-naive status. INTERVENTIONS Treatment with either methylphenidate or a matched placebo for 16 weeks. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Change in the cerebral blood flow response to an acute challenge with methylphenidate, noninvasively assessed using pharmacological magnetic resonance imaging, between baseline and 1 week after treatment. Data were analyzed using intent-to-treat analyses. RESULTS Among 131 individuals screened for eligibility, 99 patients met DSM-IV criteria for ADHD, and 50 participants were randomized to receive methylphenidate and 49 to placebo. Sixteen weeks of methylphenidate treatment increased the cerebral blood flow response to methylphenidate within the thalamus (mean difference, 6.5; 95% CI, 0.4-12.6; P = .04) of children aged 10 to 12 years old but not in adults or in the placebo group. In the striatum, the methylphenidate condition differed significantly from placebo in children but not in adults (mean difference, 7.7; 95% CI, 0.7-14.8; P = .03). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE We confirm preclinical data and demonstrate age-dependent effects of methylphenidate treatment on human extracellular dopamine striatal-thalamic circuitry. Given its societal relevance, these data warrant replication in larger groups with longer follow-up. TRIAL REGISTRATION identifier: NL34509.000.10 and trialregister.nl identifier: NTR3103.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anouk Schrantee
- Department of Radiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands2Brain Imaging Center, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands3Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Hyke G. H. Tamminga
- Department of Radiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands4d’Arc (Dutch Autism and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Research Center), Department of Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Cheima Bouziane
- Department of Radiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands2Brain Imaging Center, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marco A. Bottelier
- Department of Radiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands5Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Triversum, Alkmaar, the Netherlands
| | - Esther E. Bron
- Biomedical Imaging Group Rotterdam, Department of Medical Informatics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands7Biomedical Imaging Group Rotterdam, Department of Radiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Henk-Jan M. M. Mutsaerts
- Department of Radiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands2Brain Imaging Center, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Aeilko H. Zwinderman
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Inge R. Groote
- Institute of Psychology, Department of Social Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Serge A. R. B. Rombouts
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands11Department of Radiology, Leids Universitair Medisch Centrum, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Ramon J. L. Lindauer
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands13De Bascule Academic Center for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Stefan Klein
- Biomedical Imaging Group Rotterdam, Department of Medical Informatics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Wiro J. Niessen
- Biomedical Imaging Group Rotterdam, Department of Medical Informatics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands14Department of Imaging Physics, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Brent C. Opmeer
- Clinical Research Unit, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Frits Boer
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands13De Bascule Academic Center for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Paul J. Lucassen
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Susan L. Andersen
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School and McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts
| | - Hilde M. Geurts
- d’Arc (Dutch Autism and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Research Center), Department of Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Liesbeth Reneman
- Department of Radiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands2Brain Imaging Center, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands3Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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13
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Simchon Tenenbaum Y, Weizman A, Rehavi M. The Impact of Chronic Early Administration of Psychostimulants on Brain Expression of BDNF and Other Neuroplasticity-Relevant Proteins. J Mol Neurosci 2015; 57:231-42. [PMID: 26152882 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-015-0611-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
ABSRACT Frequently, healthy individuals, children, and students are using stimulants to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)-like symptoms or to enhance cognitive capacity, attention and concentration. Methylphenidate, the most common treatment for ADHD, similarly to cocaine, blocks the dopamine reuptake, leading to increase in dopamine level in the synaptic cleft. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and other neuroplasticity-relevant proteins have a major role in cellular plasticity during development and maturation of the brain. Young Sprague Dawley rats (postnatal days (PND) 14) were treated chronically with either cocaine or methylphenidate. The rats were examined behaviorally and biochemically at several time points (PND 35, 56, 70, and 90). We found age-dependent, but stimulant-independent, alterations in the mRNA expression levels of microtubule-associated protein tau, doublecortin, and synaptophysin. The PND 90 rats, treated with methylphenidate at an early age, exhibited increased BDNF protein levels in the prefrontal cortex compared to the saline-treated group. Despite the treatment effects at the biochemical level, cocaine and methylphenidate treatments at an early age had only minor effects on the behavioral parameters measured at older ages. The biochemical alterations may reflect neuroprotective or neuroplastic effects of chronic methylphenidate treatment at an early age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaarit Simchon Tenenbaum
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 69978, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Abraham Weizman
- Research Unit, Geha Mental Health Center and Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petah-Tikva, Israel
| | - Moshe Rehavi
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 69978, Tel-Aviv, Israel. .,The Dr. Miriam and Sheldon G. Adelson Chair and Center for the Biology of Addictive Diseases, Tel-Aviv, Israel.
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14
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Yoshii A, Constantine-Paton M, Ip NY. Editorial: Cell and molecular signaling, and transport pathways involved in growth factor control of synaptic development and function. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2015; 7:8. [PMID: 26089796 PMCID: PMC4454881 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2015.00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Akira Yoshii
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, and Pediatrics, University of Illinois at Chicago Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Martha Constantine-Paton
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Science, McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA, USA ; McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA, USA ; Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Nancy Y Ip
- Division of Life Science, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Hong Kong, China ; Molecular Neuroscience Center and Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Hong Kong, China ; State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Hong Kong, China
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15
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St-Cyr S, McGowan PO. Programming of stress-related behavior and epigenetic neural gene regulation in mice offspring through maternal exposure to predator odor. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:145. [PMID: 26082698 PMCID: PMC4450170 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 05/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Perinatal stress mediated through the mother can lead to long-term alterations in stress-related phenotypes in offspring. The capacity for adaptation to adversity in early life depends in part on the life history of the animal. This study was designed to examine the behavioral and neural response in adult offspring to prenatal exposure to predator odor: an ethologically-relevant psychological stressor. Pregnant mice were exposed daily to predator odors or distilled water control over the second half of the pregnancy. Predator odor exposure lead to a transient decrease in maternal care in the mothers. As adults, the offspring of predator odor-exposed mothers showed increased anti-predator behavior, a predator-odor induced decrease in activity and, in female offspring, an increased corticosterone (CORT) response to predator odor exposure. We found a highly specific response among stress-related genes within limbic brain regions. Transcript abundance of Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1) was elevated in the amygdala in adult female offspring of predator odor-exposed mothers. In the hippocampus of adult female offspring, decreased Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) transcript abundance was correlated with a site-specific decrease in DNA methylation in Bdnf exon IV, indicating the potential contribution of this epigenetic mechanism to maternal programming by maternal predator odor exposure. These data indicate that maternal predator odor exposure alone is sufficient to induce an altered stress-related phenotype in adulthood, with implications for anti-predator behavior in offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie St-Cyr
- Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Environmental Epigenetics and Development, Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Patrick O McGowan
- Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Environmental Epigenetics and Development, Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada ; Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada ; Department of Physiology, University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada
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16
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Simchon-Tenenbaum Y, Weizman A, Rehavi M. Alterations in brain neurotrophic and glial factors following early age chronic methylphenidate and cocaine administration. Behav Brain Res 2015; 282:125-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.12.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Revised: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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17
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Monoamine-sensitive developmental periods impacting adult emotional and cognitive behaviors. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015; 40:88-112. [PMID: 25178408 PMCID: PMC4262911 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2014.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Revised: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Development passes through sensitive periods, during which plasticity allows for genetic and environmental factors to exert indelible influence on the maturation of the organism. In the context of central nervous system development, such sensitive periods shape the formation of neurocircuits that mediate, regulate, and control behavior. This general mechanism allows for development to be guided by both the genetic blueprint as well as the environmental context. While allowing for adaptation, such sensitive periods are also vulnerability windows during which external and internal factors can confer risk to disorders by derailing otherwise resilient developmental programs. Here we review developmental periods that are sensitive to monoamine signaling and impact adult behaviors of relevance to psychiatry. Specifically, we review (1) a serotonin-sensitive period that impacts sensory system development, (2) a serotonin-sensitive period that impacts cognition, anxiety- and depression-related behaviors, and (3) a dopamine- and serotonin-sensitive period affecting aggression, impulsivity and behavioral response to psychostimulants. We discuss preclinical data to provide mechanistic insight, as well as epidemiological and clinical data to point out translational relevance. The field of translational developmental neuroscience has progressed exponentially providing solid conceptual advances and unprecedented mechanistic insight. With such knowledge at hand and important methodological innovation ongoing, the field is poised for breakthroughs elucidating the developmental origins of neuropsychiatric disorders, and thus understanding pathophysiology. Such knowledge of sensitive periods that determine the developmental trajectory of complex behaviors is a necessary step towards improving prevention and treatment approaches for neuropsychiatric disorders.
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18
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Shanks RA, Ross JM, Doyle HH, Helton AK, Picou BN, Schulz J, Tavares C, Bryant S, Dawson BL, Lloyd SA. Adolescent exposure to cocaine, amphetamine, and methylphenidate cross-sensitizes adults to methamphetamine with drug- and sex-specific effects. Behav Brain Res 2014; 281:116-24. [PMID: 25496784 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Revised: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The increasing availability, over-prescription, and misuse and abuse of ADHD psychostimulant medications in adolescent populations necessitates studies investigating the long-term effects of these drugs persisting into adulthood. Male and female C57Bl/6J mice were exposed to amphetamine (AMPH) (1.0 and 10 mg/kg), methylphenidate (MPD) (1.0 and 10 mg/kg), or cocaine (COC) (5.0 mg/kg) from postnatal day 22 to 31, which represents an early adolescent period. After an extended period of drug abstinence, adult mice were challenged with a subacute methamphetamine (METH) dose (0.5 mg/kg), to test the long-term effects of adolescent drug exposures on behavioral cross-sensitization using an open field chamber. There were no sex- or dose-specific effects on motor activity in adolescent, saline-treated controls. However, AMPH, MPD, and COC adolescent exposures induced cross-sensitization to a subacute METH dose in adulthood, which is a hallmark of addiction and a marker of long-lasting plastic changes in the brain. Of additional clinical importance, AMPH-exposed male mice demonstrated increased cross-sensitization to METH in contrast to the female-specific response observed in MPD-treated animals. There were no sex-specific effects after adolescent COC exposures. This study demonstrates differential drug, dose, and sex-specific alterations induced by early adolescent psychostimulant exposure, which leads to behavioral alterations that persist into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan A Shanks
- Department of Biology, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Jordan M Ross
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Hillary H Doyle
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Amanda K Helton
- Department of Biology, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Brittany N Picou
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Jordyn Schulz
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Chris Tavares
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Sarah Bryant
- Department of Biology, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Bryan L Dawson
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Steven A Lloyd
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
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19
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Hill RA, Kiss Von Soly S, Ratnayake U, Klug M, Binder MD, Hannan AJ, van den Buuse M. Long-term effects of combined neonatal and adolescent stress on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and dopamine receptor expression in the rat forebrain. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2014; 1842:2126-35. [PMID: 25159716 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2014.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2014] [Revised: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Altered brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signalling and dopaminergic neurotransmission have been shown in the forebrain in schizophrenia. The 'two hit' hypothesis proposes that two major disruptions during development are involved in the pathophysiology of this illness. We therefore used a 'two hit' rat model of combined neonatal and young-adult stress to assess effects on BDNF signalling and dopamine receptor expression. Wistar rats were exposed to neonatal maternal separation (MS) stress and/or adolescent/young-adult corticosterone (CORT) treatment. At adulthood the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), caudate putamen (CPu) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) were analysed by qPCR and Western blot. The 'two hit' combination of MS and CORT treatment caused significant increases in BDNF mRNA and protein levels in the mPFC of male, but not female rats. BDNF mRNA expression was unchanged in the CPu but was significantly reduced by CORT in the NAc. DR3 and DR2 mRNA were significantly up-regulated in the mPFC of two-hit rats and a positive correlation was found between BDNF and DR3 expression in male, but not female rats. DR2 and DR3 expression were significantly increased following CORT treatment in the NAc and a significant negative correlation between BDNF and DR3 and DR2 mRNA levels was found. Our data demonstrate male-specific two-hit effects of developmental stress on BDNF and DR3 expression in the mPFC. Furthermore, following chronic adolescent CORT treatment, the relationship between BDNF and dopamine receptor expression was significantly altered in the NAc. These results elucidate the long-term effects of 'two hit' developmental stress on behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Hill
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Szerenke Kiss Von Soly
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Udani Ratnayake
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Maren Klug
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Psychology, Swinburne University, Hawthorn, Australia
| | - Michele D Binder
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Anthony J Hannan
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Maarten van den Buuse
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia; School of Psychological Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia.
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