Small Extracellular Vesicles in Milk Cross the Blood-Brain Barrier in Murine Cerebral Cortex Endothelial Cells and Promote Dendritic Complexity in the Hippocampus and Brain Function in C57BL/6J Mice

Divergence of gut bacteria through the selection of genomic variants implicated in the metabolism of sugars, amino acids, and purines by small extracellular vesicles in milk

Here, we report that small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) in milk mediate the communication between bacteria and animal kingdoms, increase the divergence of bacteria in the intestine, and alter metabolite production by bacteria. We show that bovine milk sEVs select approximately 55,000 genomic variants in 19 species of bacteria from the murine cecum ex vivo. The genomic variants are transcribed into mRNA. The selection of genomic variants by milk sEVs alters bacterial metabolism, leading to an up to 12-fold difference in the abundance of more than 1000 metabolites in bacteria cultured in milk sEV-free media compared to sEV-containing media. Evidence is particularly strong that selection of genomic variants by milk sEV changes the metabolism of sugars, amino acids, and purines which might contribute to the development of spatial learning and memory deficiencies and seizure phenotypes reported for milk sEV-depleted infants and mice. Human milk is a rich source of sEVs, whereas formula contains only trace amounts of milk sEVs. This report implicates nutritional sEVs in altered microbial metabolism beyond the mere selection of bacterial communities.

Extracellular nanovesicles as neurotherapeutics for central nervous system disorders

INTRODUCTION

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective structure that protects the central nervous system (CNS) while hindering the delivery of many therapeutic agents. This presents a major challenge in treating neurological disorders, such as multiple sclerosis, where effective drug delivery to the brain is crucial for improving patient outcomes. Innovative strategies are urgently needed to address this limitation.

AREAS COVERED

This review explores the potential of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as innovative drug delivery systems capable of crossing the BBB. EVs are membrane-bound vesicles derived from cells, tissues, or plant materials, offering natural biocompatibility and therapeutic potential. Recent studies investigating the permeability of EVs and their mechanisms for crossing the BBB, such as transcytosis, are summarized. Special emphasis is placed on plant-derived EVs (PDEVs) due to their unique advantages in drug delivery. Challenges related to the large-scale production and therapeutic consistency of EVs are also discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

EVs, particularly PDEVs, hold significant promise as scalable and noninvasive systems for CNS drug delivery. However, critical barriers such as improving standardization techniques, manufacturing processes and addressing scalability must be overcome to facilitate clinical translation. Collaborative efforts in research and innovation will be pivotal in realizing the therapeutic potential of EVs for neurological conditions.

Therapeutic potential of human breast milk-derived exosomes in necrotizing enterocolitis

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a severe inflammatory and necrotizing disease of the intestine that primarily affects the neonates, particularly premature infants. It has a high incidence of approximately 8.9% in extremely preterm infants, with a mortality rate ranging from 20 to 30%. In recent years, exosomes, particularly those derived from breast milk, have emerged as potential candidates for NEC therapy. Human breast milk-derived exosomes (BME) have been shown to enhance intestinal barrier function, protect intestinal epithelial cells from oxidative stress, promote the proliferation and migration of intestinal epithelial cells, and reduce the severity of experimental NEC models. As a subset of extracellular vesicles, BME possess the membrane structure, low immunogenicity, and high permeability, making them ideal vehicles for the treatment of NEC. Additionally, exosomes derived from various sources, including stem cells, intestinal epithelial cells, plants, and bacteria, have been implicated in the development and protection of intestinal diseases. This article summarizes the mechanisms through which exosomes, particularly BME, exert their effects on NEC and discusses the feasibility and obstacles associated with this novel therapeutic strategy.

The Role of Bovine Milk-Derived Exosomes in Human Health and Disease

Bovine milk is widely recognized as one of the most valuable sources of nutrients such as proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals that support the development and health of the body. In recent years, there has been increasing scientific interest in exosomes, the small membrane-bound vesicles found in milk. Through their content (e.g., microRNA), exosomes can influence gene expression and modulate key signaling pathways within target cells. Results from in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that bovine milk-derived exosomes can alleviate intestinal inflammation by regulating signaling pathways and positively influencing the composition of the gut microbiota. They also improve cognitive function and support nervous system regeneration. In addition, exosomes promote bone health by stimulating osteoblast formation and inhibiting bone resorption, helping to prevent osteoporosis. Studies have shown that exosomes have beneficial effects on skin health by promoting collagen production, protecting cells from oxidative stress, and delaying the ageing process. Bovine milk-derived exosomes are a promising tool for the treatment and prevention of a variety of diseases, particularly those related to inflammation and tissue regeneration. Although these results are promising, further studies are needed to fully understand the mechanisms of action and the potential clinical application of milk exosomes in the prevention and treatment of different diseases.

Milk derived extracellular vesicle uptake in human microglia regulates the DNA methylation machinery : Short title: milk-derived extracellular vesicles and the epigenetic machinery

Mammalian milk contains milk-derived extracellular vesicles (MEVs), a group of biological nanovesicles that transport macromolecules. Their ability to cross the blood brain barrier and the presence of cargo capable of modifying gene function have led to the hypothesis that MEVs may play a role in brain function and development. Here, we investigated the uptake of MEVs by human microglia cells in vitro and explored the functional outcomes of MEV uptake. We examined the expression of the miR-148/152 family, highly abundant MEV microRNAs, that directly suppress the translation of DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) enzymes crucial for catalyzing DNA methylation modifications. We also measured phenotypic and inflammatory gene expression in baseline homeostatic and IFN-γ primed microglia to determine if MEVs induce anti-inflammatory effects. We found that MEVs are taken up and localize in baseline and primed microglia. In baseline microglia, MEV supplementation reduced miR-148a-5P levels, increased DNMT1 transcript, protein abundance, and enzymatic activity, compared to cells that did not receive MEVs. In primed microglia, MEV supplementation decreased miR-148a-5P levels and increased DNMT1 protein abundance, but DNMT1 transcript and enzymatic levels remained unchanged. Contrary to predictions, MEV supplementation failed to attenuate pro-inflammatory IL1β expression in primed microglia. This study provides the first evidence of MEV uptake by a brain macrophage, suggesting a potential role in regulating epigenetic machinery and neuroimmune modulation.

Proteome characterization of extracellular vesicles from human milk: Uncovering the surfaceome by a lipid-based protein immobilization technology

Breast milk is an essential source of nutrition and hydration for the infant. In addition, this highly complex fluid is rich in extracellular vesicles (EVs). Here, we have applied a microfluidic technology, lipid-based protein immobilization (LPI) and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to characterize the proteome of human milk EVs. Mature milk from six mothers was subjected to EV isolation by ultracentrifugation followed by size exclusion chromatography. Three of the samples were carefully characterized; suggesting a subset enriched by small EVs. The EVs were digested by trypsin in an LPI flow cell and in-solution digestion, giving rise to two fractions of peptides originating from the surface proteome (LPI fraction) or the complete proteome (in-solution digestion). LC-MS/MS recovered peptides corresponding to 582 proteins in the LPI fraction and 938 proteins in the in-solution digested samples; 400 of these proteins were uniquely found in the in-solution digested samples and were hence denoted "cargo proteome". GeneOntology overrepresentation analysis gave rise to distinctly different functional predictions of the EV surfaceome and the cargo proteome. The surfaceome tends to be overrepresented in functions and components of relevance for the immune system, while the cargo proteome primarily seems to be associated with EV biogenesis.

Neonatal enteroids absorb extracellular vesicles from human milk-fed infant digestive fluid

Human milk contains extracellular vesicles (HMEVs). Pre-clinical models suggest that HMEVs may enhance intestinal function and limit inflammation; however, it is unknown if HMEVs or their cargo survive neonatal human digestion. This limits the ability to leverage HMEV cargo as additives to infant nutrition or as therapeutics. This study aimed to develop an EV isolation pipeline from small volumes of human milk and neonatal intestinal contents after milk feeding (digesta) to address the hypothesis that HMEVs survive in vivo neonatal digestion to be taken up intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). Digesta was collected from nasoduodenal sampling tubes or ostomies. EVs were isolated from raw and pasteurized human milk and digesta by density-gradient ultracentrifugation following two-step skimming, acid precipitation of caseins, and multi-step filtration. EVs were validated by electron microscopy, western blotting, nanoparticle tracking analysis, resistive pulse sensing, and super-resolution microscopy. EV uptake was tested in human neonatal enteroids. HMEVs and digesta EVs (dEVs) show typical EV morphology and are enriched in CD81 and CD9, but depleted of β-casein and lactalbumin. HMEV and some dEV fractions contain mammary gland-derived protein BTN1A1. Neonatal human enteroids rapidly take up dEVs in part via clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Our data suggest that EVs can be isolated from digestive fluid and that these dEVs can be absorbed by IECs.

The role of the placenta-brain axis in psychoneuroimmune programming

Gestational exposures have enduring impacts on brain and neuroimmune development and function. Perturbations of pregnancy leading to placental structure/function deficits, cell stress, immune activation, and endocrine changes (metabolic, growth factors, etc.) all increase neuropsychiatric risk in offspring. The existing literature links obstetric diseases with placental involvement to offspring neuroimmune outcomes and neurodevelopmental risk. Psychoneuroimmune outcomes in offspring brain include changes to microglia, cytokine/chemokine production, cell stress, and long-term immunoreactivity. These outcomes are altered by structural, anti-angiogenic/hypoxic, inflammatory, and metabolic diseases of the placenta. This fetal programming occurs via direct placental passage or production of factors which can act directly on fetal brain substrates, or indirectly via action of circulating factors on intermediates in the placenta. Placental neuroendocrine, vascular/angiogenic, immune, and extracellular vesicular mechanisms are detailed. These mechanisms interact within various placental and pregnancy conditions. An increased understanding of the placental origins of psychoneuroimmunology will yield dividends for human health. Identifying maternal and placental biomarkers for fetal neuroimmune health may also revolutionize early diagnosis and precision psychiatry, empowering patients to make the best healthcare decisions for their families. Targeting placental mechanisms may be a valuable approach for the prevention and mitigation of intergenerational, lifelong neuropathology.

Neonatal enteroids absorb extracellular vesicles from human milk-fed infant digestive fluid

Human milk contains extracellular vesicles (HMEVs). Pre-clinical models suggest that HMEVs may enhance intestinal function and limit inflammation; however, it is unknown if HMEVs or their cargo survive neonatal human digestion. This limits the ability to leverage HMEV cargo as additives to infant nutrition or as therapeutics. This study aimed to develop an EV isolation pipeline from small volumes of human milk and neonatal intestinal contents after milk feeding (digesta) to address the hypothesis that HMEVs survive in vivo neonatal digestion to be taken up intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). Digesta was collected from nasoduodenal sampling tubes or ostomies. EVs were isolated from raw and pasteurized human milk and digesta by density-gradient ultracentrifugation following two-step skimming, acid precipitation of caseins, and multi-step filtration. EVs were validated by electron microscopy, western blotting, nanoparticle tracking analysis, resistive pulse sensing, and super-resolution microscopy. EV uptake was tested in human neonatal enteroids. HMEVs and digesta EVs (dEVs) show typical EV morphology and are enriched in CD81 and CD9, but depleted of β-casein and lactalbumin. HMEV and some dEV fractions contain mammary gland-derived protein BTN1A1. Neonatal human enteroids rapidly take up dEVs in part via clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Our data suggest that EVs can be isolated from digestive fluid and that these dEVs can be absorbed by IECs.

The absorption of bovine milk small extracellular vesicles largely depends on galectin 3 and galactose ligands in human intestinal cells and C57BL/6J mice

Small extracellular vesicles in milk (sMEVs) have attracted attention in drug delivery and as bioactive food compounds. Previous studies implicate galactose residues on the sMEV surface in sMEV transport across intestinal and endothelial barriers in humans, but details of glycoprotein-dependent transport are unknown. We used a combination of cell biology and genetics protocols to identify glycoproteins on the sMEV surface that facilitate sMEV absorption. We identified 256 proteins on the bovine sMEVs surface by using LC-MS/MS, and bioinformatics analysis suggested that 42, 13, and 13 surface proteins were N-, O-, and 13 C-glycosylated, respectively. Lectin blots confirmed the presence of mannose, galactose, N-acetyl galactose, fucose, and neuraminate. When surface proteins were removed by various treatment with various proteases, sMEV uptake decreased by up to 58% and 67% in FHs-74 Int and Caco-2 cells, respectively, compared with controls (P < 0.05). When glycans were removed by treatment with various glycosidases, sMEV uptake decreased by up to 54% and 74% in FHs-74 Int and Caco-2 cells, respectively (P < 0.05). When galactose and N-acetyl galactosamine residues were blocked with agglutinins, sMEV uptake decreased by more than 50% in FHs-74 Int cells (P < 0.05). When bovine sMEVs were administered to Galectin-3 knockout mice by oral gavage, hepatic sMEV accumulation decreased by 56% compared with wild-type mice (P < 0.05), consistent with a role of β-galactoside glycan structures in the absorption of sMEVs. We conclude that sMEVs are decorated with glycoproteins, and Galectin-3 and its galactose ligands are particularly important for sMEV absorption.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first paper to assess the role of unique glycans and their Galectin-3 receptor in the transport and distribution of small extracellular vesicles ("exosomes") from milk in mammals. The research assessed milk exosome transport and distribution by using multiple approaches and platforms including cell cultures, various exosome labels, knockout and mutant mice, enzymatic removal of surface proteins and glycans, and lectin blocking of glycans.

Application of Milk Exosomes for Musculoskeletal Health: Talking Points in Recent Outcomes

Milk is a nutrient-rich food source, and among the various milks, breast milk is a nutrient source provided by mothers to newborns in many mammals. Exosomes are nano-sized membranous extracellular vesicles that play important roles in cell-to-cell communication. Exosomes originate from endogenous synthesis and dietary sources such as milk. Discovered through electron microscopy as floating vesicles, the existence of exosomes in human milk was confirmed owing to a density between 1.10 and 1.18 g/mL in a sucrose gradient corresponding to the known density of exosomes and detection of MHC classes I and II, CD63, CD81, and CD86 on the vesicles. To date, milk exosomes have been used for treating many diseases, including cancers, and are widely proposed as promising carriers for the delivery of chemotherapeutic agents. However, few studies on milk exosomes focus on geriatric health, especially sarcopenia and osteoporosis related to bone and muscle. Therefore, the present study focused on milk exosomes and their cargoes, which are potential candidates for dietary supplements, and when combined with drugs, they can be effective in treating musculoskeletal diseases. In this review, we introduce the basic concepts, including the definition, various sources, and cargoes of milk exosomes, and exosome isolation and characterization methods. Additionally, we review recent literature on the musculoskeletal system and milk exosomes. Since inflammation and oxidative stress underly musculoskeletal disorders, studies reporting the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of milk exosomes are also summarized. Finally, the therapeutic potential of milk exosomes in targeting muscle and bone health is proposed.

Milk-derived small extracellular vesicles: a new perspective on dairy nutrition

Milk contains bioactive compounds that have multiple essential benefits. Milk-derived small extracellular vesicles (M-sEVs) have emerged as novel bioactive milk components with various beneficial biological functions and broad applications. The M-sEVs from different mammalian sources have similar composition and bioactive functions. The digestive stability and biocompatibility of the M-sEVs provide a good foundation for their physiological functions. Evidence suggests that M-sEVs promote intestinal, immune, bone, neural, liver, and heart health and show therapeutic effects against cancer, indicating their potential for use in functional foods. In addition, M-sEVs can be developed as natural delivery carriers owing to their superior structural characteristics. Further studies are needed to elucidate the relationship between the specific components and functions of M-sEVs, standardize their extraction processes, and refine relevant clinical trials to advance the future applications of M-sEVs. This review summarizes the structure and composition of M-sEVs isolated from different milk sources and discusses several common extraction methods. Since the introduction of M-sEVs for digestion and absorption, studies have been conducted on their biological functions. Furthermore, we outline the theoretical industrial production route, potential application scenarios of M-sEVs, and the future perspectives of M-sEV research.

Milk-borne small extracellular vesicles: kinetics and mechanisms of transport, distribution, and elimination

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) in milk have the qualities desired for delivering therapeutics to diseased tissues. The production of bovine milk sEVs is scalable (1021 annually per cow), and they resist degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. Most cells studied to date internalize milk sEVs by a saturable process that follows Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The bioavailability of oral milk sEVs is approximately 50%. In addition to crossing the intestinal mucosa, milk sEVs also cross barriers such as the placenta and blood-brain barrier, thereby enabling the delivery of therapeutics to hard-to-reach tissues. In time course studies, levels of milk sEVs peaked in the intestinal mucosa, plasma, and urine approximately 6 h and returned to baseline 24 h after oral gavage in mice. In tissues, milk sEV levels peaked 12 h after gavage. Milk sEVs appear to be biologically safe. No cytokine storm was observed when milk sEVs were added to cultures of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells or administered orally to rats. Liver and kidney function and erythropoiesis were not impaired when milk sEVs were administered to rats by oral gavage for up to 15 days. Protocols for loading milk sEVs with therapeutic cargo are available. Currently, the use of milk sEVs (and other nanoparticles) in the delivery of therapeutics is limited by their rapid elimination through internalization by macrophages and lysosomal degradation in target cells. This mini review discusses the current knowledge base of sEV tissue distribution, excretion in feces and urine, internalization by macrophages, and degradation in lysosomes.

Deciphering psychobiotics' mechanism of action: bacterial extracellular vesicles in the spotlight

The intake of psychobiotic bacteria appears to be a promising adjunct to neuropsychiatric treatment, and their consumption may even be beneficial for healthy people in terms of mental functioning. The psychobiotics' mechanism of action is largely outlined by the gut-brain axis; however, it is not fully understood. Based on very recent studies, we provide compelling evidence to suggest a novel understanding of this mechanism: bacterial extracellular vesicles appear to mediate many known effects that psychobiotic bacteria exert on the brain. In this mini-review paper, we characterize the extracellular vesicles derived from psychobiotic bacteria to demonstrate that they can be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, penetrate to the brain, and carry the intracellular content to exert beneficial multidirectional action. Specifically, by regulating epigenetic factors, extracellular vesicles from psychobiotics appear to enhance expression of neurotrophic molecules, improve serotonergic neurotransmission, and likely supply astrocytes with glycolytic enzymes to favor neuroprotective mechanisms. As a result, some data suggest an antidepressant action of extracellular vesicles that originate even from taxonomically remote psychobiotic bacteria. As such, these extracellular vesicles may be regarded as postbiotics of potentially therapeutic application. The mini-review is enriched with illustrations to better introduce the complex nature of brain signaling mediated by bacterial extracellular vesicles and indicates knowledge gaps that require scientific exploration before further progress is made. In conclusion, bacterial extracellular vesicles appear to represent the missing piece of the puzzle in the mechanism of action of psychobiotics.

Bioavailability of orally administered small extracellular vesicles from bovine milk in C57BL/6J mice

Small extracellular vesicles (sMEVs) from bovine milk are studied for delivering therapeutics. Here, we estimated sMEV bioavailability of an oral dose of sMEVs. Bovine sMEVs were labeled covalently with HiLyteTM 750 (MEV-750) and administered by oral gavage to C57BL/6J mice. Plasma, urine, feces, and tissues were harvested at timed intervals for up to 24 h and fluorescence was assessed. Fecal excretion amounted to approximately 55% of the oral MEV-750 dose in males and females. The levels of MEV-750 peaked in the intestinal mucosa and plasma approximately 6 h after oral gavage and returned to baseline at time point 24 h. MEV-750 were detectable in peripheral tissues approximately 12 h after gavage. MEV-750 excretion in urine peaked approximately 6 h after oral gavage and returned to background levels after 24 h. Analysis by size exclusion chromatography suggested that HiLyteTM detached from sMEVs in artificial gastric fluid but not in plasma, i.e., HiLyteTM allows to estimate sMEV bioavailability with comparably high confidence. We conclude that the apparent bioavailability of sMEVs is 45%, and sMEVs are transported to peripheral tissues in C57BL/6J mice; excretion in feces and urine are the main routes of sMEV elimination.

Physiological and pathological consequences of exosomes at the blood-brain-barrier interface

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) interface with multicellular structure controls strictly the entry of varied circulating macromolecules from the blood-facing surface into the brain parenchyma. Under several pathological conditions within the central nervous system, the integrity of the BBB interface is disrupted due to the abnormal crosstalk between the cellular constituents and the recruitment of inflammatory cells. Exosomes (Exos) are nano-sized extracellular vesicles with diverse therapeutic outcomes. These particles transfer a plethora of signaling molecules with the potential to modulate target cell behavior in a paracrine manner. Here, in the current review article, the therapeutic properties of Exos and their potential in the alleviation of compromised BBB structure were discussed. Video Abstract.

Milk-derived extracellular vesicles protect intestinal barrier integrity in the gut-liver axis

Milk-derived extracellular vesicles (mEVs) have been proposed as a potential nanomedicine for intestinal disorders; however, their impact on intestinal barrier integrity in gut inflammation and associated metabolic diseases has not been explored yet. Here, mEVs derived from bovine and human breast milk exert similar protective effects on epithelial tight junction functionality in vitro, survive harsh gastrointestinal conditions ex vivo, and reach the colon in vivo. Oral administration of mEVs restores gut barrier integrity at multiple levels, including mucus, epithelial, and immune barriers, and prevents endotoxin translocation into the liver in chemical-induced experimental colitis and diet-induced nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), thereby alleviating gut disorders, their associated liver inflammation, and NASH. Oral administration of mEVs has potential in the treatment of gut inflammation and gut-liver axis-associated metabolic diseases via protection of intestinal barrier integrity.

The RNA cargo in small extracellular vesicles from chicken eggs is bioactive in C57BL/6 J mice and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells ex vivo

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) and their RNA cargo in milk are bioavailable in humans, pigs, and mice, and their dietary depletion and supplementation elicits phenotypes. Little is known about the content and biological activity of sEVs in foods of animal origin other than milk. Here we tested the hypothesis that sEVs in chicken eggs (Gallus gallus) facilitate the transfer of RNA cargo from an avian species to humans and mice, and their dietary depletion elicits phenotypes. sEVs were purified from raw egg yolk by ultracentrifugation and authenticated by transmission electron microscopy, nano-tracking device, and immunoblots. The miRNA profile was assessed by RNA-sequencing. Bioavailability of these miRNAs in humans was assessed by egg feeding study in adults, and by culturing human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with fluorophore-labeled egg sEVs ex vivo. To further assess bioavailability, fluorophore-labeled miRNAs, encapsulated in egg sEVs, were administered to C57BL/6 J mice by oral gavage. Phenotypes of sEV RNA cargo depletion were assessed by feeding egg sEV and RNA-defined diets to mice and using spatial learning and memory in the Barnes and water mazes as experimental readouts. Egg yolk contained 6.30 × 10¹⁰ ± 6.06 × 10⁹ sEVs/mL, which harbored eighty-three distinct miRNAs. Human PBMCs internalized sEVs and their RNA cargo. Egg sEVs, loaded with fluorophore-labeled RNA and administered orally to mice, accumulated primarily in brain, intestine and lungs. Spatial learning and memory (SLM) was compromised in mice fed on egg sEV- and RNA-depleted diet compared to controls. Egg consumption elicited an increase of miRNAs in human plasma. We conclude that egg sEVs and their RNA cargo probably are bioavailable. The human study is registered as a clinical trial and accessible at https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN77867213.

Breast milk microRNAs: Potential players in oral tolerance development

Breast milk is an essential source of nutrition and hydration for the infant. In addition, this highly complex biological fluid contains numerous immunologically active factors such as microorganisms, immunoglobulins, cytokines and microRNAs (miRNAs). Here, we set out to predict the function of the top 10 expressed miRNAs in human breast milk, focusing on their relevance in oral tolerance development and allergy prevention in the infant. The top expressed miRNAs in human breast milk were identified on basis of previous peer-reviewed studies gathered from a recent systematic review and an updated literature search. The miRNAs with the highest expression levels in each study were used to identify the 10 most common miRNAs or miRNA families across studies and these were selected for subsequent target prediction. The predictions were performed using TargetScan in combination with the Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery. The ten top expressed miRNAs were: let-7-5p family, miR-148a-3p, miR-30-5p family, miR-200a-3p + miR-141-3p, miR-22-3p, miR-181-5p family, miR-146b-5p, miR-378a-3p, miR-29-3p family, miR-200b/c-3p and miR-429-3p. The target prediction identified 3,588 potential target genes and 127 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways; several connected to the immune system, including TGF-b and T cell receptor signaling and T-helper cell differentiation. This review highlights the role of breast milk miRNAs and their potential contribution to infant immune maturation. Indeed, breast milk miRNAs seem to be involved in several pathways that influence oral tolerance development.

Emerging role of exosomes in vascular diseases

Exosomes are biological small spherical lipid bilayer vesicles secreted by most cells in the body. Their contents include nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Exosomes can transfer material molecules between cells and consequently have a variety of biological functions, participating in disease development while exhibiting potential value as biomarkers and therapeutics. Growing evidence suggests that exosomes are vital mediators of vascular remodeling. Endothelial cells (ECs), vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), inflammatory cells, and adventitial fibroblasts (AFs) can communicate through exosomes; such communication is associated with inflammatory responses, cell migration and proliferation, and cell metabolism, leading to changes in vascular function and structure. Essential hypertension (EH), atherosclerosis (AS), and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) are the most common vascular diseases and are associated with significant vascular remodeling. This paper reviews the latest research progress on the involvement of exosomes in vascular remodeling through intercellular information exchange and provides new ideas for understanding related diseases.

Human Milk Extracellular Vesicles: A Biological System with Clinical Implications

The consumption of human milk by a breastfeeding infant is associated with positive health outcomes, including lower risk of diarrheal disease, respiratory disease, otitis media, and in later life, less risk of chronic disease. These benefits may be mediated by antibodies, glycoproteins, glycolipids, oligosaccharides, and leukocytes. More recently, human milk extracellular vesicles (hMEVs) have been identified. HMEVs contain functional cargos, i.e., miRNAs and proteins, that may transmit information from the mother to promote infant growth and development. Maternal health conditions can influence hMEV composition. This review summarizes hMEV biogenesis and functional contents, reviews the functional evidence of hMEVs in the maternal–infant health relationship, and discusses challenges and opportunities in hMEV research.