The Role of Heparanase and Sulfatases in the Modification of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans within the Tumor Microenvironment and Opportunities for Novel Cancer Therapeutics

Heparanase interacting BCLAF1 to promote the development and drug resistance of ICC through the PERK/eIF2α pathway

Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) is a primary epithelial carcinoma known for its aggressive nature, high metastatic potential, frequent recurrence, and poor prognosis. Heparanase (HPSE) is the only known endogenous β-glucuronidase in mammals. In addition to its well-established enzymatic roles, HPSE critically exerts non-catalytic function in tumor biology. This study herein aimed to investigate the non-enzymatic roles of HPSE as well as relevant regulatory mechanisms in ICC. Our results demonstrated that HPSE was highly expressed in ICC and promoted the proliferation of ICC cells, with elevated HPSE levels implicating a poor overall survival of ICC patients. Notably, HPSE interacted with Bcl-2-associated factor 1 (BCLAF1) to upregulate the expression of Bcl-2, which subsequently activated the PERK/eIF2α-mediated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathway to promote anti-apoptotic effect of ICC. Moreover, our in vivo experiments revealed that concomitant administration of gemcitabine and the Bcl-2 inhibitor navitoclax enhanced the sensitivity of ICC cells with highly expressed HPSE to chemotherapy. In summary, our findings revealed that HPSE promoted the development and drug resistance of ICC via its non-enzymatic function. Bcl-2 may be considered as an effective target with therapeutic potential to overcome ICC chemotherapy resistance induced by HPSE, presenting valuable insights into the development of novel therapeutic strategies against ICC.

CircNSD1 promotes cardiac fibrosis through targeting the miR-429-3p/SULF1/Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Cardiac fibrosis is a detrimental pathological process, which constitutes the key factor for adverse cardiac structural remodeling leading to heart failure and other critical conditions. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have emerged as important regulators of various cardiovascular diseases. It is known that several circRNAs regulate gene expression and pathological processes by binding miRNAs. In this study we investigated whether a novel circRNA, named circNSD1, and miR-429-3p formed an axis that controls cardiac fibrosis. We established a mouse model of myocardial infarction (MI) for in vivo studies and a cellular model of cardiac fibrogenesis in primary cultured mouse cardiac fibroblasts treated with TGF-β1. We showed that miR-429-3p was markedly downregulated in the cardiac fibrosis models. Through gain- and loss-of-function studies we confirmed miR-429-3p as a negative regulator of cardiac fibrosis. In searching for the upstream regulator of miR-429-3p, we identified circNSD1 that we subsequently demonstrated as an endogenous sponge of miR-429-3p. In MI mice, knockdown of circNSD1 alleviated cardiac fibrosis. Moreover, silence of human circNSD1 suppressed the proliferation and collagen production in human cardiac fibroblasts in vitro. We revealed that circNSD1 directly bound miR-429-3p, thereby upregulating SULF1 expression and activating the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Collectively, circNSD1 may be a novel target for the treatment of cardiac fibrosis and associated cardiac disease.

6-O-endosulfatases in tumor metastasis: heparan sulfate proteoglycans modification and potential therapeutic targets

Metastasis is the leading cause of cancer-associated mortality. Although advances in the targeted treatment and immunotherapy have improved the management of some cancers, the prognosis of metastatic cancers remains unsatisfied. Therefore, the specific mechanisms in tumor metastasis need further investigation. 6-O-endosulfatases (SULFs), comprising sulfatase1 (SULF1) and sulfatase 2 (SULF2), play pivotal roles in the post-synthetic modifications of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). Consequently, these extracellular enzymes can regulate a variety of downstream pathways by modulating HSPGs function. During the past decades, researchers have detected the expression of SULF1 and SULF2 in most cancers and revealed their roles in tumor progression and metastasis. Herein we reviewed the metastasis steps which SULFs participated in, elucidated the specific roles and mechanisms of SULFs in metastasis process, and discussed the effects of SULFs in different types of cancers. Moreover, we summarized the role of targeting SULFs in combination therapy to treat metastatic cancers, which provided some novel strategies for cancer therapy.

Glycocalyx analysis of bladder cancer: three-dimensional images in electron microscopy and vicia villosa lectin as a marker for invasiveness in frozen sections

Introduction: The abnormal glycocalyx (GCX) on the surface of cancer cells has been reported to be tall and aberrantly glycosylated and has been linked to the progression and spread of cancer-a finding also observed in bladder cancer. However, the characteristics of GCX in various types of human bladder cancer remain unknown, and herein, we aimed to provide information on the diversity of glycan components in the GCX of bladder cancers and to shed light on their characteristics. Methods: We used scanning electron microscopy and lanthanum staining to examine the surface GCX of human bladder carcinomas in three-dimensional images, showing the bulky GCX in some carcinomas. We also examined glycan alterations in early to progressive stages of bladder cancers using 20 distinct lectin stains on frozen sections from transurethral resection of bladder tumors. Results and discussion: Distinctive Vicia villosa lectin (VVL) staining was observed in invasive urothelial carcinomas, including those with muscle invasion and variant components. In the clinical setting, cancers with atypia of grades 2-3 had a significantly higher VVL scoring intensity than those with grade 1 atypia (p < 0.005). This study identified that a specific lectin, VVL, was more specific to invasive urothelial carcinomas. This lectin, which selectively binds to sites of cancer progression, is a promising target for drug delivery in future clinical investigations.

Modified minimal-size fragments of heparan sulfate as inhibitors of endosulfatase-2 (Sulf-2)

Sulf-2 has been identified as a putative target for anticancer therapies. Here we report the design and synthesis of sulfated disaccharide inhibitors based on IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S). Trisulfated disaccharide inhibitor IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6Sulfamate) demonstrated potent Sulf-2 inhibition. The IC50 value was determined to be 39.8 μM ± 18.3, which is comparable to a tetrasaccharide inhibitor of HSulf-1 reported in the literature. We propose that the disaccharide IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S) is the shortest fragment size required for effective inhibition of the Sulfs.

Scientific and clinical relevance of non-cellular tumor microenvironment components in ovarian cancer chemotherapy resistance

The tumor microenvironment (TME) components play a crucial role in cancer cells' resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. This phenomenon is exceptionally fundamental in patients with ovarian cancer (OvCa), whose outcome depends mainly on their response to chemotherapy. Until now, most reports have focused on the role of cellular components of the TME, while less attention has been paid to the stroma and other non-cellular elements of the TME, which may play an essential role in the therapy resistance. Inhibiting these components could help define new therapeutic targets and potentially restore chemosensitivity. The aim of the present article is both to summarize the knowledge about non-cellular components of the TME in the development of OvCa chemoresistance and to suggest targeting of non-cellular elements of the TME as a valuable strategy to overcome chemoresistance and to develop new therapeutic strategies in OvCA patients.

miRNA profiling of esophageal adenocarcinoma using transcriptome analysis

Esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) occurs following a series of histological changes through epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). A variable expression of normal and aberrant genes in the tissue can contribute to the development of EAC through the activation or inhibition of critical molecular signaling pathways. Gene expression is regulated by various regulatory factors, including transcription factors and microRNAs (miRs). The exact profile of miRs associated with the pathogenesis of EAC is largely unknown, though some candidate miRNAs have been reported in the literature. To identify the unique miR profile associated with EAC, we compared normal esophageal tissue to EAC tissue using bulk RNA sequencing. RNA sequence data was verified using qPCR of 18 selected genes. Fourteen were confirmed as being upregulated, which include CDH11, PCOLCE, SULF1, GJA4, LUM, CDH6, GNA12, F2RL2, CTSZ, TYROBP, and KDELR3 as well as the downregulation of UGT1A1. We then conducted Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) to analyze for novel miR-gene relationships through Causal Network Analysis and Upstream Regulator Analysis. We identified 46 miRs that were aberrantly expressed in EAC compared to control tissues. In EAC tissues, seven miRs were associated with activated networks, while 39 miRs were associated with inhibited networks. The miR-gene relationships identified provide novel insights into potentially oncogenic molecular pathways and genes associated with carcinogenesis in esophageal tissue. Our results revealed a distinct miR profile associated with dysregulated genes. The miRs and genes identified in this study may be used in the future as biomarkers and serve as potential therapeutic targets in EAC.

An overview of extracellular matrix and its remodeling in the development of cancer and metastasis with a glance at therapeutic approaches

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is an inevitable part of tissues able to provide structural support for cells depending on the purpose of tissues and organs. The dynamic characteristics of ECM let this system fluently interact with the extrinsic triggers and get stiffed, remodeled, and/or degraded ending in maintaining tissue homeostasis. ECM could serve as the platform for cancer progression. The dysregulation of biochemical and biomechanical ECM features might take participate in some pathological conditions such as aging, tissue destruction, fibrosis, and particularly cancer. Tumors can reprogram how ECM remodels by producing factors able to induce protein synthesis, matrix proteinase expression, degradation of the basement membrane, growth signals and proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Therefore, targeting the ECM components, their secretion, and their interactions with other cells or tumors could be a promising strategy in cancer therapies. The present study initially introduces the physiological functions of ECM and then discusses how tumor-dependent dysregulation of ECM could facilitate cancer progression and ends with reviewing the novel therapeutic strategies regarding ECM.

Low-molecular weight sulfated marine polysaccharides: Promising molecules to prevent neurodegeneration in mucopolysaccharidosis IIIA?

Mucopolysaccharidosis IIIA is a hereditary disease caused by mutations in the sulfamidase enzyme that participates in catabolism of heparan sulfate (HS), leading to HS fragment accumulation and multisystemic failure. No cure exists and death occurs around the second decade of life. Two low molecular weight highly sulfated compounds derived from marine diabolican and infernan exopolysaccharides (A5_3 and A5_4, respectively) with heparanase inhibiting properties were tested in a MPSIIIA cell line model, resulting in limited degradation of intracellular HS. Next, we observed the effects of intraperitoneal injections of the diabolican derivative A5_3 from 4 to 12 weeks of age on MPSIIIA mice. Brain metabolism and microstructure, levels of proteins and genes involved in MPSIIIA brain pathophysiology were also investigated. 1H-Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) indicated deficits in energetic metabolism, tissue integrity and neurotransmission at both 4 and 12 weeks in MPSIIIA mice, with partial protective effects of A5_3. Ex-vivo Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) showed white matter microstructural damage in MPSIIIA, with noticeable protective effects of A5_3. Protein and gene expression assessments displayed both pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic profiles in MPSIIIA mice, with benefits of A5_3 counteracting neuroinflammation. Overall, derivative A5_3 was well tolerated and was shown to be efficient in preventing brain metabolism failure and inflammation, resulting in preserved brain microstructure in the context of MPSIIIA.

Heparan-6-O-Endosulfatase 2 Promotes Invasiveness of Head and Neck Squamous Carcinoma Cell Lines in Co-Cultures with Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts

Local invasiveness of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is a complex phenomenon supported by interaction of the cancer cells with the tumor microenvironment (TME). We and others have shown that cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are a component of the TME that can promote local invasion in HNSCC and other cancers. Here we report that the secretory enzyme heparan-6-O-endosulfatase 2 (Sulf-2) directly affects the CAF-supported invasion of the HNSCC cell lines SCC35 and Cal33 into Matrigel. The Sulf-2 knockout (KO) cells differ from their wild type counterparts in their spheroid growth and formation, and the Sulf-2-KO leads to decreased invasion in a spheroid co-culture model with the CAF. Next, we investigated whether a fucosylated chondroitin sulfate isolated from the sea cucumber Holothuria floridana (HfFucCS) affects the activity of the Sulf-2 enzyme. Our results show that HfFucCS not only efficiently inhibits the Sulf-2 enzymatic activity but, like the Sulf-2 knockout, inhibits Matrigel invasion of SCC35 and Cal33 cells co-cultured with primary HNSCC CAF. These findings suggest that the heparan-6-O-endosulfatases regulate local invasion and could be therapeutically targeted with the inhibitory activity of a marine glycosaminoglycan.

Synergestic interplay of uronic acid and sulfation composition of heparan sulfate on molecular recognition to activity

Heparan sulfate (HS) is ubiquitous polysaccharide on the surface of all mammalian cells and extracellular matrices. The incredible structural complexity of HS arises from its sulfation patterns and disaccharide compositions, which orchestrate a wide range of biological activities. Researchers have developed elegant synthetic methods to obtain well-defined HS oligosaccharides to understand the structure-activity relationship. These studies revealed that specific sulfation codes and uronic acid variants could synergistically modulate HS-protein interactions (HSPI). Additionally, the conformational flexibility of l-Iduronic acid, a uronic acid unit has emerged as a critical factor in fine-tuning the microenvironment to modulate HSPI. This review delineates how uronic acid composition in HS modulates protein binding affinity, selectivity, and biological activity. Finally, the significance of sulfated homo-oligo uronic acid as heparin mimics in drug development is also discussed.

Role of a Novel Heparanase Inhibitor on the Balance between Apoptosis and Autophagy in U87 Human Glioblastoma Cells

BACKGROUND

Heparanase (HPSE) is an endo-β-glucuronidase that cleaves heparan sulfate side chains, leading to the disassembly of the extracellular matrix, facilitating cell invasion and metastasis dissemination. In this research, we investigated the role of a new HPSE inhibitor, RDS 3337, in the regulation of the autophagic process and the balance between apoptosis and autophagy in U87 glioblastoma cells.

METHODS

After treatment with RDS 3337, cell lysates were analyzed for autophagy and apoptosis-related proteins by Western blot.

RESULTS

We observed, firstly, that LC3II expression increased in U87 cells incubated with RDS 3337, together with a significant increase of p62/SQSTM1 levels, indicating that RDS 3337 could act through the inhibition of autophagic-lysosomal flux of LC3-II, thereby leading to accumulation of lipidated LC3-II form. Conversely, the suppression of autophagic flux could activate apoptosis mechanisms, as revealed by the activation of caspase 3, the increased level of cleaved Parp1, and DNA fragmentation.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support the notion that HPSE promotes autophagy, providing evidence that RDS 3337 blocks autophagic flux. It indicates a role for HPSE inhibitors in the balance between apoptosis and autophagy in U87 human glioblastoma cells, suggesting a potential role for this new class of compounds in the control of tumor growth progression.

Immune checkpoint inhibition combined with targeted therapy using a novel virus-like drug conjugate induces complete responses in a murine model of local and distant tumors

Metastases remain the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Therefore, improving the treatment efficacy against such tumors is essential to enhance patient survival. AU-011 (belzupacap sarotalocan) is a new virus-like drug conjugate which is currently in clinical development for the treatment of small choroidal melanoma and high-risk indeterminate lesions in the eye. Upon light activation, AU-011 induces rapid necrotic cell death which is pro-inflammatory and pro-immunogenic, resulting in an anti-tumor immune response. As AU-011 is known to induce systemic anti-tumor immune responses, we investigated whether this combination therapy would also be effective against distant, untreated tumors, as a model for treating local and distant tumors by abscopal immune effects. We compared the efficacy of combining AU-011 with several different checkpoint blockade antibodies to identify optimal treatment regimens in an in vivo tumor model. We show that AU-011 induces immunogenic cell death through the release and exposure of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), resulting in the maturation of dendritic cells in vitro. Furthermore, we show that AU-011 accumulates in MC38 tumors over time and that ICI enhances the efficacy of AU-011 against established tumors in mice, resulting in complete responses for specific combinations in all treated animals bearing a single MC38 tumor. Finally, we show that AU-011 and anti-PD-L1/anti-LAG-3 antibody treatment was an optimal combination in an abscopal model, inducing complete responses in approximately 75% of animals. Our data show the feasibility of combining AU-011 with PD-L1 and LAG-3 antibodies for the treatment of primary and distant tumors.

Potential roles of heparanase in cancer therapy: Current trends and future direction

Heparanase (HPSE; heparanase-1) is an endo-β-glucuronidase capable of degrading the carbohydrate moiety of heparan sulfate proteoglycans, thus modulating and facilitating the remodeling of the extracellular matrix and basement membrane. HPSE activity is strongly associated with major human pathological complications, including but not limited to tumor progress and angiogenesis. Several lines of literature have shown that overexpression of HPSE leads to enhanced tumor growth and metastatic transmission, as well as poor prognosis. Gene silencing of HPSE or treatment of tumor with compounds that block HPSE activity are shown to remarkably attenuate tumor progression. Therefore, targeting HPSE is considered as a potential therapeutical strategy for the treatment of cancer. Intriguingly, recent findings disclose that heparanase-2 (HPSE-2), a close homolog of HPSE but lacking enzymatic activity, can also regulate antitumor mechanisms. Given the pleiotropic roles of HPSE, further investigation is in demand to determine the precise mechanism of regulating action of HPSE in different cancer settings. In this review, we first summarize the current understanding of HPSE, such as its structure, subcellular localization, and tissue distribution. Furthermore, we systematically review the pro- and antitumorigenic roles and mechanisms of HPSE in cancer progress. In addition, we delineate HPSE inhibitors that have entered clinical trials and their therapeutic potential.

The prognostic value and immunological role of SULF2 in adrenocortical carcinoma

Background

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) represents the rare urological epithelial cancer of urinary tract, which has a large mass and is usually diagnosed at the advanced stage, thus inducing the poor prognosis. As a result, early detection and diagnosis are more important for the prognosis rather than the treatment of ACC. There is evidence supporting the association of Sulfatase2 (SULF2) with bladder cancer. However, the relationships of SULF2 with the clinical features and immune infiltration of ACC remain unclear.

Methods

This work comprehensively investigated the different expression levels of SULF2 within ACC and its prognostic significance through various databases including Gene Expression Profiling Interaction Analysis (GEPIA), Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER), The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), Kaplan-Meier (KM) plotter and UALCAN. Besides, SULF2 levels within different tumor and paraneoplastic tissues were examined based on Human Protein Atlas (HPA) and TIMER. Afterwards, this study identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in high-compared with low-SULF2-expression groups. To predict the possible interaction between SULF2 and its targets, a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed based on relevant data collected in STRING database. Besides, the SULF2 functional annotation was carried out, including Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and GSEA. In addition, gene mutation analysis was also performed based on the cBioPortal database. The relation of SULF2 with immune infiltration was analyzed from various aspects by using the resources of various databases including TIMER, TISIDB, and GEPIA, which was first reported in this work. Finally, R package was utilized to plot the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves of diagnosis, time-dependent survival, and the association of SULF2 with cancer stage and the nomogram model. Finally, CellMiner dataset was adopted for SULF2 correlation as well as drug sensitivity analysis.

Results

Relative to healthy people, SULF2 level markedly elevated within ACC tissues. Besides, SULF2 up-regulation significantly predicted the dismal prognostic outcome, which may be an important prognostic factor. Afterwards, the PPI network was constructed, and the possible link of SULF2 with the corresponding targets was predicted. Besides, up-regulated SULF2 expression was tightly related to immune regulation and tumor-infiltration immune cell (TIICs), including CD8⁺, CD4⁺ and mast cells. Finally, SULF2 expression was speculated to help determine the sensitivity of certain drugs.

Conclusions

SULF2 may offer a new therapeutic target for ACC patients and become an important potential prognostic biomarker.

Setting the stage for universal pharmacological targeting of the glycocalyx

All cells in the human body are covered by a complex meshwork of sugars as well as proteins and lipids to which these sugars are attached, collectively termed the glycocalyx. Over the past few decades, the glycocalyx has been implicated in a range of vital cellular processes in health and disease. Therefore, it has attracted considerable interest as a therapeutic target. Considering its omnipresence and its relevance for various areas of cell biology, the glycocalyx should be a versatile platform for therapeutic intervention, however, the full potential of the glycocalyx as therapeutic target is yet to unfold. This might be attributable to the fact that glycocalyx alterations are currently discussed mainly in the context of specific diseases. In this perspective review, we shift the attention away from a disease-centered view of the glycocalyx, focusing on changes in glycocalyx state. Furthermore, we survey important glycocalyx-targeted drugs currently available and finally discuss future steps. We hope that this approach will inspire a unified, holistic view of the glycocalyx in disease, helping to stimulate novel glycocalyx-targeted therapy strategies.

Sulfatase 2 Affects Polarization of M2 Macrophages through the IL-8/JAK2/STAT3 Pathway in Bladder Cancer

Sulfatase 2 (SULF2) affects the occurrence and development of cancer by regulating HSPG-binding factors. However, the mechanism of SULF2 in bladder cancer (BCa) is unknown. To determine this, we analyzed the RNA sequencing of 90 patients with BCa. The results showed that the expression of SULF2 was closely related to the prognosis of BCa. Moreover, in vivo and in vitro experiments revealed that SULF2 promotes tumor proliferation and invasion. Furthermore, using a mouse orthotopic BCa model and flow cytometric analysis, we identified that SULF2 affects the polarization of macrophages. Mechanism studies clarified that SULF2 promoted the release of HSPG-binding factors, such as IL-8, in the microenvironment through β-catenin. Meanwhile, IL-8 activated the JAK2/STAT3 pathway of macrophages to promote the expression of CD163 and CD206, thereby regulating the polarization of macrophages to the M2-type. Conclusively, these results indicate that SULF2 plays an important role in regulating the microenvironment of BCa and promotes the polarization of macrophages to the M2-type by secreting IL-8, which further deepens the malignant progression of BCa.

Enzymatic Digestion of Cell-surface Heparan Sulfate Alters the Radiation Response in Triple-negative Breast Cancer Cells

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Radiation resistance represents a major challenge in the treatment of breast cancer. As heparan sulfate (HS) chains are known to contribute to tumorigenesis, we aimed to investigate the interplay between HS degradation and radiation response in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells.

METHODS

HS chains were degraded in vitro as TNBC cells MDA-MB-231 and HCC1806 were treated with heparinase I and III. Subsequently, radioresistance was determined via colony formation assay after doses of 2, 4 and 6 Gy. Cell cycle profile, stem cell characteristics, expression of HS, activation of beta integrins, and apoptosis were determined by flow cytometry. Additionally, cell motility was analyzed via wound-healing assays, and expression and activation of FAK, CDK-6, Src, and Erk1/2 were quantified by western blot pre- and post-irradiation. Finally, the expression of cytokines was analyzed using a cytokine array.

RESULTS

Radiation promoted cell cycle changes, while heparinase treatment induced apoptosis in both cell lines. Colony formation assays showed significantly increased radio-resistance for both cell lines after degradation of HS. Cell migration was similarly upregulated after degradation of HS compared to controls. This effect was even more prominent after irradiation. Interestingly, FAK, a marker of radioresistance, was significantly activated in the heparinase-treated group. Additionally, we found Src to be dysregulated in MDA-MB-231 cells. Finally, we observed differential secretion of GRO, CXCL1, IGFBP1, IL8, Angiogenin, and Osteoprotegerin after HS degradation and radiotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest an influence of HS chains on the development of radioresistance in TNBC.

The Development of a Gleason Score-Related Gene Signature for Predicting the Prognosis of Prostate Cancer

The recurrence of prostate cancer (PCa) is intrinsically linked to increased mortality. The goal of this study was to develop an efficient and reliable prognosis prediction signature for PCa patients. The training cohort was acquired from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset, while the validation cohort was obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) dataset (GSE70769). To explore the Gleason score (GS)-based prediction signature, we screened the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between low- and high-GS groups, and then univariate Cox regression survival analysis and multiple Cox analyses were performed sequentially using the training cohort. The testing cohort was used to evaluate and validate the prognostic model's effectiveness, accuracy, and clinical practicability. In addition, the correlation analyses between the risk score and clinical features, as well as immune infiltration, were performed. We constructed and optimized a valid and credible model for predicting the prognosis of PCa recurrence using four GS-associated genes (SFRP4, FEV, COL1A1, SULF1). Furthermore, ROC and Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed a higher predictive efficiency for biochemical recurrence (BCR). The results showed that the risk model was an independent prognostic factor. Moreover, the risk score was associated with clinical features and immune infiltration. Finally, the risk model was validated in a testing cohort. Our data support that the GS-based four-gene signature acts as a novel signature for predicting BCR in PCa patients.

Modeling extracellular matrix through histo-molecular gradient in NSCLC for clinical decisions

Lung cancer still represents a global health problem, being the main type of tumor responsible for cancer deaths. In this context, the tumor microenvironment, and the extracellular matrix (ECM) pose as extremely relevant. Thus, this study aimed to explore the prognostic value of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), Wnt signaling, and ECM proteins expression in patients with non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) with clinical stages I-IIIA. For that, we used 120 tissue sections from patients and evaluated the immunohistochemical, immunofluorescence, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to each of these markers. We also used in silico analysis to validate our data. We found a strong expression of E-cadherin and β-catenin, which reflects the differential ECM invasion process. Therefore, we also noticed a strong expression of chondroitin sulfate (CS) and collagens III and V. This suggests that, after EMT, the basal membrane (BM) enhanced the motility of invasive cells. EMT proteins were directly associated with WNT5A, and collagens III and V, which suggests that the WNT pathway drives them. On the other hand, heparan sulfate (HS) was associated with WNT3A and SPARC, while WNT1 was associated with CS. Interestingly, the association between WNT1 and Col IV suggested negative feedback of WNT1 along the BM. In our cohort, WNT3A, WNT5A, heparan sulfate and SPARC played an important role in the Cox regression model, influencing the overall survival (OS) of patients, be it directly or indirectly, with the SPARC expression stratifying the OS into two groups: 97 months for high expression; and 65 for low expression. In conclusion, the present study identified a set of proteins that may play a significant role in predicting the prognosis of NSCLC patients with clinical stages I-IIIA.

Extracellular Heparan 6-O-Endosulfatases SULF1 and SULF2 in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma and Other Malignancies

Pan-cancer analysis of TCGA and CPTAC (proteomics) data shows that SULF1 and SULF2 are oncogenic in a number of human malignancies and associated with poor survival outcomes. Our studies document a consistent upregulation of SULF1 and SULF2 in HNSC which is associated with poor survival outcomes. These heparan sulfate editing enzymes were considered largely functional redundant but single-cell RNAseq (scRNAseq) shows that SULF1 is secreted by cancer-associated fibroblasts in contrast to the SULF2 derived from tumor cells. Our RNAScope and patient-derived xenograft (PDX) analysis of the HNSC tissues fully confirm the stromal source of SULF1 and explain the uniform impact of this enzyme on the biology of multiple malignancies. In summary, SULF2 expression increases in multiple malignancies but less consistently than SULF1, which uniformly increases in the tumor tissues and negatively impacts survival in several types of cancer even though its expression in cancer cells is low. This paradigm is common to multiple malignancies and suggests a potential for diagnostic and therapeutic targeting of the heparan sulfatases in cancer diseases.

Role of Prosaposin and Extracellular Sulfatase Sulf-1 Detection in Pleural Effusions as Diagnostic Biomarkers of Malignant Mesothelioma

Malignant pleural mesothelioma is an aggressive malignancy with poor prognosis. Unilateral pleural effusion is frequently the initial clinical sign requiring therapeutic thoracentesis, which also offers a diagnostic opportunity. Detection of soluble biomarkers can support diagnosis, but few show good diagnostic accuracy. Here, we studied the expression levels and discriminative power of two putative biomarkers, prosaposin and extracellular sulfatase SULF-1, identified by proteomic and transcriptomic analysis, respectively. Pleural effusions from a total of 44 patients (23 with mesothelioma, 8 with lung cancer, and 13 with non-malignant disease) were analyzed for prosaposin and SULF-1 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Pleural effusions from mesothelioma patients had significantly higher levels of prosaposin and SULF-1 than those from non-malignant disease patients. Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) analysis showed that both biomarkers have good discriminating power as pointed out by an AUC value of 0.853 (p = 0.0005) and 0.898 (p < 0.0001) for prosaposin and SULF-1, respectively. Combining data ensued a model predicting improvement of the diagnostic performance (AUC = 0.916, p < 0.0001). In contrast, prosaposin couldn’t discriminate mesothelioma patients from lung cancer patients while ROC analysis of SULF-1 data produced an AUC value of 0.821 (p = 0.0077) but with low sensitivity. In conclusion, prosaposin and SULF-1 levels determined in pleural effusion may be promising biomarkers for differential diagnosis between mesothelioma and non-malignant pleural disease. Instead, more patients need to be enrolled before granting the possible usefulness of these soluble proteins in differentiating mesothelioma pleural effusions from those linked to lung cancer.

State-of-the-art glycosaminoglycan characterization

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are heterogeneous acidic polysaccharides involved in a range of biological functions. They have a significant influence on the regulation of cellular processes and the development of various diseases and infections. To fully understand the functional roles that GAGs play in mammalian systems, including disease processes, it is essential to understand their structural features. Despite having a linear structure and a repetitive disaccharide backbone, their structural analysis is challenging and requires elaborate preparative and analytical techniques. In particular, the extent to which GAGs are sulfated, as well as variation in sulfate position across the entire oligosaccharide or on individual monosaccharides, represents a major obstacle. Here, we summarize the current state-of-the-art methodologies used for GAG sample preparation and analysis, discussing in detail liquid chromatograpy and mass spectrometry-based approaches, including advanced ion activation methods, ion mobility separations and infrared action spectroscopy of mass-selected species.

Osteochondroma formation is independent of heparanase expression as revealed in a mouse model of hereditary multiple exostoses

Hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is a rare, pediatric disorder characterized by osteochondromas that form along growth plates and provoke significant musculoskeletal problems. HME is caused by mutations in heparan sulfate (HS)-synthesizing enzymes EXT1 or EXT2. Seemingly paradoxically, osteochondromas were found to contain excessive extracellular heparanase (Hpse) that could further reduce HS levels and exacerbate pathogenesis. To test Hpse roles, we asked whether its ablation would protect against osteochondroma formation in a conditional HME model consisting of mice bearing floxed Ext1 alleles in Agr-CreER background (Ext1f/f ;Agr-CreER mice). Mice were crossed with a new global Hpse-null (Hpse-/- ) mice to produce compound Hpse-/- ;Ext1f/f ;Agr-CreER mice. Tamoxifen injection of standard juvenile Ext1f/f ;Agr-CreER mice elicited stochastic Ext1 ablation in growth plate and perichondrium, followed by osteochondroma formation, as revealed by microcomputed tomography and histochemistry. When we examined companion conditional Ext1-deficient mice lacking Hpse also, we detected no major decreases in osteochondroma number, skeletal distribution, and overall structure by the analytical criteria above. The Ext1 mutants used here closely mimic human HME pathogenesis, but have not been previously tested for responsiveness to treatments. To exclude some innate therapeutic resistance in this stochastic model, tamoxifen-injected Ext1f/f ;Agr-CreER mice were administered daily doses of the retinoid Palovarotene, previously shown to prevent ectopic cartilage and bone formation in other mouse disease models. This treatment did inhibit osteochondroma formation compared with vehicle-treated mice. Our data indicate that heparanase is not a major factor in osteochondroma initiation and accumulation in mice. Possible roles of heparanase upregulation in disease severity in patients are discussed.

Seaweeds in the Oncology Arena: Anti-Cancer Potential of Fucoidan as a Drug—A Review

Marine natural products are a discerning arena to search for the future generation of medications to treat a spectrum of ailments. Meanwhile, cancer is becoming more ubiquitous over the world, and the likelihood of dying from it is rising. Surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy are the mainstays of cancer treatment worldwide, but their extensive side effects limit their curative effect. The quest for low-toxicity marine drugs to prevent and treat cancer is one of the current research priorities of researchers. Fucoidan, an algal sulfated polysaccharide, is a potent therapeutic lead candidate against cancer, signifying that far more research is needed. Fucoidan is a versatile, nontoxic marine-origin heteropolysaccharide that has received much attention due to its beneficial biological properties and safety. Fucoidan has been demonstrated to exhibit a variety of conventional bioactivities, such as antiviral, antioxidant, and immune-modulatory characteristics, and anticancer activity against a wide range of malignancies has also recently been discovered. Fucoidan inhibits tumorigenesis by prompting cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, blocking metastasis and angiogenesis, and modulating physiological signaling molecules. This review compiles the molecular and cellular aspects, immunomodulatory and anticancer actions of fucoidan as a natural marine anticancer agent. Specific fucoidan and membranaceous polysaccharides from Ecklonia cava, Laminaria japonica, Fucus vesiculosus, Astragalus, Ascophyllum nodosum, Codium fragile serving as potential anticancer marine drugs are discussed in this review.

Harnessing Human Papillomavirus’ Natural Tropism to Target Tumors

Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are small non-enveloped DNA tumor viruses established as the primary etiological agent for the development of cervical cancer. Decades of research have elucidated HPV’s primary attachment factor to be heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG). Importantly, wounding and exposure of the epithelial basement membrane was found to be pivotal for efficient attachment and infection of HPV in vivo. Sulfation patterns on HSPG’s become modified at the site of wounds as they serve an important role promoting tissue healing, cell proliferation and neovascularization and it is these modifications recognized by HPV. Analogous HSPG modification patterns can be found on tumor cells as they too require the aforementioned processes to grow and metastasize. Although targeting tumor associated HSPG is not a novel concept, the use of HPV to target and treat tumors has only been realized in recent years. The work herein describes how decades of basic HPV research has culminated in the rational design of an HPV-based virus-like infrared light activated dye conjugate for the treatment of choroidal melanoma.

Circulating Exosome Cargoes Contain Functionally Diverse Cancer Biomarkers: From Biogenesis and Function to Purification and Potential Translational Utility

Although diagnostic and therapeutic treatments of cancer have tremendously improved over the past two decades, the indolent nature of its symptoms has made early detection challenging. Thus, inter-disciplinary (genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and lipidomic) research efforts have been focused on the non-invasive identification of unique "silver bullet" cancer biomarkers for the design of ultra-sensitive molecular diagnostic assays. Circulating tumor biomarkers, such as CTCs and ctDNAs, which are released by tumors in the circulation, have already demonstrated their clinical utility for the non-invasive detection of certain solid tumors. Considering that exosomes are actively produced by all cells, including tumor cells, and can be found in the circulation, they have been extensively assessed for their potential as a source of circulating cell-specific biomarkers. Exosomes are particularly appealing because they represent a stable and encapsulated reservoir of active biological compounds that may be useful for the non-invasive detection of cancer. T biogenesis of these extracellular vesicles is profoundly altered during carcinogenesis, but because they harbor unique or uniquely combined surface proteins, cancer biomarker studies have been focused on their purification from biofluids, for the analysis of their RNA, DNA, protein, and lipid cargoes. In this review, we evaluate the biogenesis of normal and cancer exosomes, provide extensive information on the state of the art, the current purification methods, and the technologies employed for genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and lipidomic evaluation of their cargoes. Our thorough examination of the literature highlights the current limitations and promising future of exosomes as a liquid biopsy for the identification of circulating tumor biomarkers.

Heparanase 1 Upregulation Promotes Tumor Progression and Is a Predictor of Low Survival for Oral Cancer

Background: Oral cavity cancer is still an important public health problem throughout the world. Oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCCs) can be quite aggressive and metastatic, with a low survival rate and poor prognosis. However, this is usually related to the clinical stage and histological grade, and molecular prognostic markers for clinical practice are yet to be defined. Heparanase (HPSE1) is an endoglycosidase associated with extracellular matrix remodeling, and although involved in several malignancies, the clinical implications of HPSE1 expression in OSCCs are still unknown.

Methods: We sought to investigate HPSE1 expression in a series of primary OSCCs and further explore whether its overexpression plays a relevant role in OSCC tumorigenesis. mRNA and protein expression analyses were performed in OSCC tissue samples and cell lines. A loss-of-function strategy using shRNA and a gain-of-function strategy using an ORF vector targeting HPSE1 were employed to investigate the endogenous modulation of HPSE1 and its effects on proliferation, apoptosis, adhesion, epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), angiogenesis, migration, and invasion of oral cancer in vitro.

Results: We demonstrated that HPSE1 is frequently upregulated in OSCC samples and cell lines and is an unfavorable prognostic indicator of disease-specific survival when combined with advanced pT stages. Moreover, abrogation of HPSE1 in OSCC cells significantly promoted apoptosis and inhibited proliferation, migration, invasion, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition by significantly decreasing the expression of N-cadherin and vimentin. Furthermore, a conditioned medium of HPSE1-downregulated cells resulted in reduced vascular endothelial growth.

Conclusion: Our results confirm the overexpression of HPSE1 in OSCCs, suggest that HPSE1 expression correlates with disease progression as it is associated with several important biological processes for oral tumorigenesis, and can be managed as a prognostic marker for patients with OSCC.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of DC-targeting PLGA nanoparticles encapsulating heparanase CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell epitopes for cancer immunotherapy

Heparanase has been identified as a universal tumor-associated antigen, but heparanase epitope peptides are difficult to recognize. Therefore, it is necessary to explore novel strategies to ensure efficient delivery to antigen-presenting cells. Here, we established a novel immunotherapy model targeting antigens to dendritic cell (DC) receptors using a combination of heparanase CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell epitope peptides to achieve an efficient cytotoxic T-cell response, which was associated with strong activation of DCs. First, pegylated poly(lactic-coglycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) were used to encapsulate a combined heparanase CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell epitope alone or in combination with Toll-like receptor 3 and 7 ligands as a model antigen to enhance immunogenicity. The ligands were then targeted to DC cell-surface molecules using a DEC-205 antibody. The binding and internalization of these PLGA NPs and the activation of DCs, the T-cell response and the tumor-killing effect were assessed. The results showed that PLGA NPs encapsulating epitope peptides (mHpa399 + mHpa519) could be targeted to and internalized by DCs more efficiently, stimulating higher levels of IL-12 production, T-cell proliferation and IFN-γ production by T cells in vitro. Moreover, vaccination with DEC-205-targeted PLGA NPs encapsulating combined epitope peptides exhibited higher tumor-killing efficacy both in vitro and in vivo. In conclusion, delivery of PLGA NP vaccines targeting DEC-205 based on heparanase CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell epitopes are suitable immunogens for antitumor immunotherapy and have promising potential for clinical applications.

Prediction of Prognosis and Recurrence of Bladder Cancer by ECM-Related Genes

Background

Bladder cancer (BLCA) is one of the most common cancers and ranks ninth among all cancers. Extracellular matrix (ECM) genes activate a number of pathways that facilitate tumor development. This study is aimed at providing models to predict BLCA survival and recurrence by ECM genes.

Methods

Expression data from BLCA samples in GSE32894, GSE13507, GSE31684, GSE32548, and TCGA-BLCA cohorts were downloaded and analyzed. The ECM-related genes were obtained by differentially expressed gene analysis, stage-associated gene analysis, and random forest variable selection. The ECM was constructed in GSE32894 by the hub ECM-related genes and validated in GSE13507, GSE31684, GSE32548, and TCGA-BLCA cohorts. The correlations of the ECM score with cells (T cells, fibroblasts, etc.) and the response to immunotherapeutic drugs were investigated. Four machine learning models were selected and used to construct models to predict the recurrence of BLCA. A total of 15 paired BLCA and normal tissue specimens, human immortalized uroepithelial cell lines, and bladder cancer cell lines were selected for the validation of the difference in expression of FSTL1 between normal tissues and BLCA.

Results

Six ECM genes (CTHRC1, MMP11, COL10A1, FSTL1, SULF1, and COL5A3) were recognized to be the hub ECM-related genes. The ECM score of each BLCA patient was calculated using these six selected ECM-related genes. BLCA patients with a high ECM score group had significantly lower overall survival rates than patients in the low ECM score group. We found that the ECM score was positively associated with immune cells and fibroblasts and negatively correlated with tumor purity. When treated with immunotherapy, BLCA patients with a high ECM score presented a high response rate and better prognosis. We also found that the combination of FSTL1, stage, age, and gender achieved an AUC value of 0.76 in predicting bladder cancer recurrence. Based on the RT-qPCR results of FSTL1 gene expression, there was an overall decrease in the mRNA expression of FSTL1 in cancer tissues compared to their adjacent normal tissues. Subsequent in vitro validation demonstrated that the FSTL1 expression was downregulated at the gene and protein level compared to that in SVH cells.

Conclusion

Taken together, our results indicate that ECM-related genes correlate with immune cells, overall survival, and recurrence of BLCA. This study provides a machine learning model for predicting the survival and recurrence of BLCA patients.

Heparan Sulfate Biosynthesis and Sulfation Profiles as Modulators of Cancer Signalling and Progression

Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans (HSPGs) are important cell surface and Extracellular Matrix (ECM) maestros involved in the orchestration of multiple cellular events in physiology and pathology. These glycoconjugates bind to various bioactive proteins via their Heparan Sulfate (HS) chains, but also through the protein backbone, and function as scaffolds for protein-protein interactions, modulating extracellular ligand gradients, cell signalling networks and cell-cell/cell-ECM interactions. The structural features of HS chains, including length and sulfation patterns, are crucial for the biological roles displayed by HSPGs, as these features determine HS chains binding affinities and selectivity. The large HS structural diversity results from a tightly controlled biosynthetic pathway that is differently regulated in different organs, stages of development and pathologies, including cancer. This review addresses the regulatory mechanisms underlying HS biosynthesis, with a particular focus on the catalytic activity of the enzymes responsible for HS glycan sequences and sulfation motifs, namely D-Glucuronyl C5-Epimerase, N- and O-Sulfotransferases. Moreover, we provide insights on the impact of different HS structural epitopes over HSPG-protein interactions and cell signalling, as well as on the effects of deregulated expression of HS modifying enzymes in the development and progression of cancer. Finally, we discuss the clinical potential of HS biosynthetic enzymes as novel targets for therapy, and highlight the importance of developing new HS-based tools for better patients' stratification and cancer treatment.

Improvement of the performance of anticancer peptides using a drug repositioning pipeline

The use of anticancer peptides (ACPs) as an alternative/complementary strategy to conventional chemotherapy treatments has been shown to decrease drug resistance and/or severe side effects. However, the efficacy of the positively-charged ACP is inhibited by elevated levels of negatively-charged cell-surface components which trap the peptides and prevent their contact with the cell membrane. Consequently, this decreases ACP-mediated membrane pore formation and cell lysis. Negatively-charged heparan sulphate (HS) and chondroitin sulphate (CS) have been shown to inhibit the cytotoxic effect of ACPs. In this study, we propose a strategy to promote the broad utilization of ACPs. In this context, we developed a drug repositioning pipeline to analyse transcriptomics data generated for four different cancer cell lines (A549, HEPG2, HT29, and MCF7) treated with hundreds of drugs in the LINCS L1000 project. Based on previous studies identifying genes modulating levels of the glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) HS and CS at the cell surface, our analysis aimed at identifying drugs inhibiting genes correlated with high HS and CS levels. As a result, we identified six chemicals as likely repositionable drugs with the potential to enhance the performance of ACPs. The codes in R and Python programming languages are publicly available in https://github.com/ElyasMo/ACPs_HS_HSPGs_CS. As a conclusion, these six drugs are highlighted as excellent targets for synergistic studies with ACPs aimed at lowering the costs associated with ACP-treatment.

DAL-1/4.1B promotes the uptake of exosomes in lung cancer cells via Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan 2 (HSPG2)

DAL-1/4.1B is frequently absent in lung cancer tissues, which is significantly related to the occurrence and development of lung cancer. In this research, we found that DAL-1/4.1B affected the uptake of exosomes by lung cancer cells. When the expression of DAL-1/4.1B increased and decreased, the ability of exosome uptake enhanced and attenuated correspondingly. And we found that when cells were treated with different vesicles uptake inhibitors (chlorpromazine, methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD), cytochalasin D, chloroquine and heparin) and heparinase (HSPE), only heparin and HSPE counteracted the uptake enhancement effect caused by DAL-1/4.1B. Therefore, we speculated that DAL-1/4.1B might promote the uptake of exosomes through the heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) pathway. After screening the expression of HSPGs and HSPE in H292 cells, the expression of heparan sulfate proteoglycan 2 (HSPG2) increased with overexpression of DAL-1/4.1B and decreased with knockdown of DAL-1/4.1B. Meanwhile, exosome uptake decreased with HSPG2 knockdown in H292 and DAL-1/4.1B-overexpressing H292 cells. Moreover, knockdown of DAL-1/4.1B and HSPG2 in lung cancer A549 cells resulted in a similar decrease in exosome uptake, and the expression of HSPG2 was also decreased with DAL-1/4.1B knockdown. These results indicated that HSPG2 directly affected the uptake of exosomes, while DAL-1/4.1B positively affected the expression of HSPG2. Therefore, DAL-1/4.1B may promote cellular adhesion and inhibit migration in cancer cells.

Heparanase is a novel biomarker for immune infiltration and prognosis in breast cancer

Heparanase (HPSE), an endoglycosidase that cleaves heparan sulfate, regulates a variety of biological processes that promote tumor progression. In this study, we analyzed the correlation between HPSE expression and prognosis in cancer patients, using multiple databases (Oncomine, TIMER, PrognoScan, GEPIA, Kaplan-Meier plotter, miner v4.1, DAVID). HPSE expression was significantly increased in bladder, breast, lung, and stomach cancer compared to matched normal tissues. The increased HPSE expression correlated with poor prognosis and increased immune infiltration levels of B cells, CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells in bladder and breast cancer. In breast cancer, the high HPSE expression was associated with basal-like subtypes, younger age (0-40), advanced Scarff-Bloom-Richardson grade, Nottingham Prognostic Index and p53 mutation status. In addition, using a mouse model of breast cancer, our data showed that HPSE upregulated IL-10 expression and promoted macrophage M2 polarization and T cell exhaustion. Together, our data provide a novel immunological perspective on the mechanisms underlying breast cancer progression, and indicate that HPSE may serve as a biomarker for immune infiltration and prognosis in breast cancer.

Heparanase confers temozolomide resistance by regulation of exosome secretion and circular RNA composition in glioma

Temozolomide (TMZ) resistance is the main challenge in the management of glioma patients. Heparanase can mediate the secretion and function of exosomes, which are considered to be a promising molecular delivery system for cancer therapy. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether heparanase‐mediated delivery of exosomes was related to TMZ resistance of glioma. Heparanase was upregulated in TMZ‐resistant glioma cells, and overexpression of heparanase led to increased resistance of U87 cells to TMZ. Knockdown of heparanase led to increased sensitivity of TMZ‐resistant U251 cells (U251R) cells to TMZ. Heparanase promoted the secretion of exosomes from glioma cells, and coculture with exosomes derived from heparanase knockdown U251R cells partly restored the sensitivity of U251 cells to TMZ compared with exosomes derived from si‐control transfected U251R cells. It was identified by circular RNA microarrays that hsa_circ_0042003 was upregulated in exosomes derived from U251R, which could be positively regulated by heparanase. U251R cell‐derived exosomal hsa_circ_0042003 conferred the resistance of U251 cells to TMZ. In vivo studies also showed that U251R cell‐derived exosomes induced resistance of U251 cells to TMZ, and the combination of tail‐injected exosomal si‐heparanase or exosomal si‐hsa_circ_0042003 and intraperitoneal TMZ applied to nude mice abolished TMZ resistance. Heparanase mediated the transfer of exosomal hsa_circ_0042003 from TMZ‐resistant glioma cells to drug‐sensitive cells, which contributed to the chemoresistance of glioma to TMZ.

A combined microRNA and target protein-based panel for predicting the probability and severity of uraemic vascular calcification: a translational study

AIMS

Vascular calcification (VC) increases the future risk of cardiovascular events in uraemic patients, but effective therapies are still unavailable. Accurate identification of those at risk of developing VC using pathogenesis-based biomarkers is of particular interest and may facilitate individualized risk stratification. We aimed to uncover microRNA (miRNA)-target protein-based biomarker panels for evaluating uraemic VC probability and severity.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We created a three-tiered in vitro VC model and an in vivo uraemic rat model receiving high phosphate diet to mimic uraemic VC. RNAs from the three-tiered in vitro and in vivo uraemic VC models underwent miRNA and mRNA microarray, with results screened for differentially expressed miRNAs and their target genes as biomarkers. Findings were validated in original models and additionally in an ex vivo VC model and human cells, followed by functional assays of identified miRNAs and target proteins, and tests of sera from end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and non-dialysis-dependent chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients without and with VC. Totally 122 down-regulated and 119 up-regulated miRNAs during calcification progression were identified initially; further list narrowing based on miRNA-mRNA pairing, anti-correlation, and functional enrichment left 16 and 14 differentially expressed miRNAs and mRNAs. Levels of four miRNAs (miR-10b-5p, miR-195, miR-125b-2-3p, and miR-378a-3p) were shown to decrease throughout all models tested, while one mRNA (SULF1, a potential target of miR-378a-3p) exhibited the opposite trend concurrently. Among 96 ESRD (70.8% with VC) and 59 CKD patients (61% with VC), serum miR-125b2-3p and miR-378a-3p decreased with greater VC severity, while serum SULF1 levels increased. Adding serum miR-125b-2-3p, miR-378a-3p, and SULF1 into regression models for VC substantially improved performance compared to using clinical variables alone.

CONCLUSION

Using a translational approach, we discovered a novel panel of biomarkers for gauging the probability/severity of uraemic VC based on miRNAs/target proteins, which improved the diagnostic accuracy.

Overexpression of DDIT4 and TPTEP1 are associated with metastasis and advanced stages in colorectal cancer patients: a study utilizing bioinformatics prediction and experimental validation

BACKGROUND

Various diagnostic and prognostic tools exist in colorectal cancer (CRC) due to multiple genetic and epigenetic alterations causing the disease. Today, the expression of RNAs is being used as prognostic markers for cancer.

METHODS

In the current study, various dysregulated RNAs in CRC were identified via bioinformatics prediction. Expression of several of these RNAs were measured by RT-qPCR in 48 tissues from CRC patients as well as in colorectal cancer stem cell-enriched spheroids derived from the HT-29 cell line. The relationships between the expression levels of these RNAs and clinicopathological features were analyzed.

RESULTS

Our bioinformatics analysis determined 11 key mRNAs, 9 hub miRNAs, and 18 lncRNAs which among them 2 coding RNA genes including DDIT4 and SULF1 as well as 3 non-coding RNA genes including TPTEP1, miR-181d-5p, and miR-148b-3p were selected for the further investigations. Expression of DDIT4, TPTEP1, and miR-181d-5p showed significantly increased levels while SULF1 and miR-148b-3p showed decreased levels in CRC tissues compared to the adjacent normal tissues. Positive relationships between DDIT4, SULF1, and TPTEP1 expression and metastasis and advanced stages of CRC were observed. Additionally, our results showed significant correlations between expression of TPTEP1 with DDIT4 and SULF1.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrated increased expression levels of DDIT4 and TPTEP1 in CRC were associated with more aggressive tumor behavior and more advanced stages of the disease. The positive correlations between TPTEP1 as non-coding RNA and both DDIT4 and SULF1 suggest a regulatory effect of TPTEP1 on these genes.

Rs3802278 in 3'-UTR of SULF1 associated with platinum resistance and survival in Chinese epithelial ovarian cancer patients

Ovarian cancer is the leading cause of death from gynecologic cancers, but platinum resistance remains a major obstacle in the chemotherapy of ovarian cancer. This study aims to examine the role of polymorphisms in sulfatase 1 (SULF1) in platinum resistance and survival in advanced epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) patients. We genotyped 12 SNPs of SULF1 in 195 EOC patients treated with platinum using MassARRAY method and evaluated the association between the SNPs and platinum response. SULF1 rs3802278 was marginal significantly associated with platinum resistance in recessive model with p value of 0.055. The patients with SULF1 rs3802278 AA were more resistant to platinum-based chemotherapy comparing to those with AG/GG genotype (OR: 2.317, 95%CI: 0.982 ∼ 5.465). In survival analysis, rs3802278 was significantly associated with both of PFS and OS after adjusted by FIGO stage and age. Patients with AA genotypes showed a shorter PFS and OS than with AG/GG genotypes (median PFS: 15 months vs. 21 months, p = 0.010, HR = 1.876, 95%CI: 1.165-3.022; median OS: 42 months vs. 73 months, p = 0.031, HR = 1.928, 95%CI: 1.061-3.504). SULF1 rs3802278 may serve as a potential candidate biomarker for the prediction of platinum resistance and prognosis in Chinese EOC patients.

Engineered ECM models: Opportunities to advance understanding of tumor heterogeneity

Intratumoral heterogeneity is a negative prognostic factor for cancer and commonly attributed to microenvironment-driven genetic mutations and/or the emergence of cancer stem-like cells. How aberrant extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling regulates the phenotypic diversity of tumor cells, however, remains poorly understood due in part to a lack of model systems that allow isolating the physicochemical heterogeneity of malignancy-associated ECM for mechanistic studies. Here, we review the compositional, microarchitectural, and mechanical hallmarks of cancer-associated ECM and highlight biomaterials and engineering approaches to recapitulate these properties for in vitro and in vivo studies. Subsequently, we describe how such engineered platforms may be explored to define the spatiotemporal dynamics through which cancer-associated ECM remodeling regulates intratumoral heterogeneity and the cancer stem-like cell phenotype. Finally, we highlight future opportunities and technological advances to further elucidate the relationship between tumor-associated ECM dynamics and intratumoral heterogeneity.

Chemokines and the extracellular matrix: Set of targets for tumor development and treatment

The extracellular matrix (ECM) consists of various molecules that support tissue cells, including proteins, fibronectin, laminin, collagen IV, and glycosaminoglycans. In addition to interactions between the ECM and cells, the ECM also interacts with chemokines, and growth factors, and these interactions ensure cell survival, development, differentiation, and migration of both immune system cells and tumor cells. This review provides an overview of the mechanisms of interaction between the ECM and chemokines, focusing on the tumor microenvironment and the modulation of these elements as a target for therapies in several types of cancer.

Sulfatase 2-Induced Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Promote Hepatocellular Carcinoma Progression via Inhibition of Apoptosis and Induction of Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition

Background

Sulfatase 2 (SULF2) removes the 6-O-sulfate groups from heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG) and consequently alters the binding sites for various signaling molecules. Here, we elucidated the role of SULF2 in the differentiation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) into carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in the hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) microenvironment and the mechanism underlying CAF-mediated HCC growth.

Methods

The clinical relevance of SULF2 and CAFs was examined using in silico and immunohistochemical (IHC) analyses. Functional studies were performed to evaluate the role of SULF2 in the differentiation of HSCs into CAFs and elucidate the mechanism underlying CAF-mediated HCC growth. Mechanistic studies were performed using the chromatin immunoprecipitation, luciferase reporter, and RNA immunoprecipitation assays. The in vitro findings were verified using the nude HCC xenograft mouse model.

Results

The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and IHC analyses revealed that the expression of CAF markers, which was positively correlated with that of SULF2 in the HCC tissues, predicted unfavorable postsurgical outcomes. Co-culturing HSCs with HCC cells expressing SULF2 promoted CAF differentiation. Additionally, CAFs repressed HCC cell apoptosis by activating the SDF-1/CXCR4/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Meanwhile, SULF2-induced CAFs promoted epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of HCC cells by modulating the SDF-1/CXCR4/OIP5-AS1/miR-153-3p/SNAI1 axis. Studies using HCC xenograft mouse models demonstrated that OIP5-AS1 induced EMT by upregulating SNAI1 and promoted HCC growth in vivo.

Conclusion

These data indicated that SULF2 secreted by the HCC cells induced the differentiation of HSCs into CAFs through the TGFβ1/SMAD3 signaling pathway. SULF2-induced CAFs attenuated HCC apoptosis by activating the SDF-1/CXCR4/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and induced EMT through the SDF-1/CXCR4/OIP5-AS1/miR-153-3p/SNAI1 axis. This study revealed a novel mechanism involved in the crosstalk between HCC cells and CAFs in the tumor microenvironment, which can aid in the development of novel and efficient therapeutic strategies for primary liver cancer.

The matrix in cancer

The extracellular matrix is a fundamental, core component of all tissues and organs, and is essential for the existence of multicellular organisms. From the earliest stages of organism development until death, it regulates and fine-tunes every cellular process in the body. In cancer, the extracellular matrix is altered at the biochemical, biomechanical, architectural and topographical levels, and recent years have seen an exponential increase in the study and recognition of the importance of the matrix in solid tumours. Coupled with the advancement of new technologies to study various elements of the matrix and cell-matrix interactions, we are also beginning to see the deployment of matrix-centric, stromal targeting cancer therapies. This Review touches on many of the facets of matrix biology in solid cancers, including breast, pancreatic and lung cancer, with the aim of highlighting some of the emerging interactions of the matrix and influences that the matrix has on tumour onset, progression and metastatic dissemination, before summarizing the ongoing work in the field aimed at developing therapies to co-target the matrix in cancer and cancer metastasis.

The Lipoprotein Transport System in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Myeloma: Advances and Challenges

Multiple myeloma (MM) is an incurable neoplastic hematologic disorder characterized by malignant plasma cells, mainly in the bone marrow. MM is associated with multiple factors, such as lipid metabolism, obesity, and age-associated disease development. Although, the precise pathogenetic mechanisms remain unknown, abnormal lipid and lipoprotein levels have been reported in patients with MM. Interestingly, patients with higher APOA1 levels, the major apolipoprotein of high density lipoprotein (HDL), have better overall survival. The limited existing studies regarding serum lipoproteins in MM are inconclusive, and often contradictory. Nevertheless, it appears that deregulation of the lipoprotein transport system may facilitate the development of the disease. Here, we provide a critical review of the literature on the role of lipids and lipoproteins in MM pathophysiology. We also propose novel mechanisms, linking the development and progression of MM to the metabolism of blood lipoproteins. We anticipate that proteomic and lipidomic analyses of serum lipoproteins along with analyses of their functionality may improve our understanding and shed light on novel mechanistic aspects of MM pathophysiology.

Glycosaminoglycans: Carriers and Targets for Tailored Anti-Cancer Therapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is composed of cancerous, non-cancerous, stromal, and immune cells that are surrounded by the components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), natural biomacromolecules, essential ECM, and cell membrane components are extensively altered in cancer tissues. During disease progression, the GAG fine structure changes in a manner associated with disease evolution. Thus, changes in the GAG sulfation pattern are immediately correlated to malignant transformation. Their molecular weight, distribution, composition, and fine modifications, including sulfation, exhibit distinct alterations during cancer development. GAGs and GAG-based molecules, due to their unique properties, are suggested as promising effectors for anticancer therapy. Considering their participation in tumorigenesis, their utilization in drug development has been the focus of both industry and academic research efforts. These efforts have been developing in two main directions; (i) utilizing GAGs as targets of therapeutic strategies and (ii) employing GAGs specificity and excellent physicochemical properties for targeted delivery of cancer therapeutics. This review will comprehensively discuss recent developments and the broad potential of GAG utilization for cancer therapy.

SANT, a novel Chinese herbal monomer combination, decreasing tumor growth and angiogenesis via modulating autophagy in heparanase overexpressed triple-negative breast cancer

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Astragalus mongholicus, Solanum nigrum Linn, Lotus plumule, Ligusticum are widely used traditional herbal medicines for cancer treatment in China. They were typical drugs selected from Gubenyiliu II and series of formula (GYII), which were developed on the foundation of YIQIHUOXUEJIEDU theory. In the present study, four active ingredients (Astragaloside IV, α-solanine, neferine, and 2,3,5,6-tetramethylpyrazine) derived from medicines above were applied in combination as SANT.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a serious threat to women's health worldwide. Heparanase (HPSE) is often up-regulated in breast cancer with the properties of facilitating tumorigenesis and influencing the autophagy process in cancer cells. This study aimed at evaluating the anti-tumor potential of SANT in treating HPSE related TNBC both in-vitro and in-vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, we explored the correlation between HPSE expression and survival of breast cancer patients in databases. We performed MTS, trans-well and wound scratch assays to assess the impact of SANT on cell proliferation and migration. Confocal microscopy observation and western blots were applied to verify the autophagy flux induced by SANT. Mice models were employed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of SANT in-vivo by tumor weights and volumes or serum index, respectively. To analyze the underlying mechanisms of SANT, we conducted human autophagy PCR array and angiogenesis proteome profiler on tumor tissues.

RESULTS

Patients with elevated HPSE expression were associated with a poor outcome in both RFS (P = 1.7e-12) and OS (P = 0.00016). SANT administration significantly inhibited cancer cells' proliferation and migration, enhanced autophagy flux, and slightly reduced the active form of HPSE in-vitro. SANT also suppressed tumor growth and angiogenesis in-vivo. Human autophagy PCR array results indicated that SANT increased the ATG16L1, ATG9B, ATG4D gene expressions while decreased TMEM74 and TNF gene expressions.Angiogenesis proteome profiler results showed SANT reduced protein level of HB-EGF, thrombospondin-2, amphiregulin, leptin, IGFBP-9, EGF, coagulation factor III, and MMP-9 (pro and active form) in tumor, raised the protein expression of serpin E1 and platelet factor 4.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicated that herbal compounds SANT may be a promising candidate in anti-cancer drug discovery. It also provides novel strategies for using natural compounds to achieve optimized effect.

Heparanome-Mediated Rescue of Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Quiescence following Inflammatory Demyelination

The proinflammatory cytokine IFN-γ, which is chronically elevated in multiple sclerosis, induces pathologic quiescence in human oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) via upregulation of the transcription factor PRRX1. In this study using animals of both sexes, we investigated the role of heparan sulfate proteoglycans in the modulation of IFN-γ signaling following demyelination. We found that IFN-γ profoundly impaired OPC proliferation and recruitment following adult spinal cord demyelination. IFN-γ-induced quiescence was mediated by direct signaling in OPCs as conditional genetic ablation of IFNγR1 (Ifngr1) in adult NG2⁺ OPCs completely abrogated these inhibitory effects. Intriguingly, OPC-specific IFN-γ signaling contributed to failed oligodendrocyte differentiation, which was associated with hyperactive Wnt/Bmp target gene expression in OPCs. We found that PI-88, a heparan sulfate mimetic, directly antagonized IFN-γ to rescue human OPC proliferation and differentiation in vitro and blocked the IFN-γ-mediated inhibitory effects on OPC recruitment in vivo Importantly, heparanase modulation by PI-88 or OGT2155 in demyelinated lesions rescued IFN-γ-mediated axonal damage and demyelination. In addition to OPC-specific effects, IFN-γ-augmented lesions were characterized by increased size, reactive astrogliosis, and proinflammatory microglial/macrophage activation along with exacerbated axonal injury and cell death. Heparanase inhibitor treatment rescued many of the negative IFN-γ-induced sequelae suggesting a profound modulation of the lesion environment. Together, these results suggest that the modulation of the heparanome represents a rational approach to mitigate the negative effects of proinflammatory signaling and rescuing pathologic quiescence in the inflamed and demyelinated human brain.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The failure of remyelination in multiple sclerosis contributes to neurologic dysfunction and neurodegeneration. The activation and proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) is a necessary step in the recruitment phase of remyelination. Here, we show that the proinflammatory cytokine interferon-γ directly acts on OPCs to induce pathologic quiescence and thereby limit recruitment following demyelination. Heparan sulfate is a highly structured sulfated carbohydrate polymer that is present on the cell surface and regulates several aspects of the signaling microenvironment. We find that pathologic interferon-γ can be blocked by modulation of the heparanome following demyelination using either a heparan mimetic or by treatment with heparanase inhibitor. These studies establish the potential for modulation of heparanome as a regenerative approach in demyelinating disease.

Glycosylation of Cancer Extracellular Vesicles: Capture Strategies, Functional Roles and Potential Clinical Applications

Glycans are major constituents of extracellular vesicles (EVs). Alterations in the glycosylation pathway are a common feature of cancer cells, which gives rise to de novo or increased synthesis of particular glycans. Therefore, glycans and glycoproteins have been widely used in the clinic as both stratification and prognosis cancer biomarkers. Interestingly, several of the known tumor-associated glycans have already been identified in cancer EVs, highlighting EV glycosylation as a potential source of circulating cancer biomarkers. These particles are crucial vehicles of cell–cell communication, being able to transfer molecular information and to modulate the recipient cell behavior. The presence of particular glycoconjugates has been described to be important for EV protein sorting, uptake and organ-tropism. Furthermore, specific EV glycans or glycoproteins have been described to be able to distinguish tumor EVs from benign EVs. In this review, the application of EV glycosylation in the development of novel EV detection and capture methodologies is discussed. In addition, we highlight the potential of EV glycosylation in the clinical setting for both cancer biomarker discovery and EV therapeutic delivery strategies.

Heparanase and the hallmarks of cancer

Heparanase is the only mammalian enzyme that cleaves heparan sulphate, an important component of the extracellular matrix. This leads to the remodelling of the extracellular matrix, whilst liberating growth factors and cytokines bound to heparan sulphate. This in turn promotes both physiological and pathological processes such as angiogenesis, immune cell migration, inflammation, wound healing and metastasis. Furthermore, heparanase exhibits non-enzymatic actions in cell signalling and in regulating gene expression. Cancer is underpinned by key characteristic features that promote malignant growth and disease progression, collectively termed the 'hallmarks of cancer'. Essentially, all cancers examined to date have been reported to overexpress heparanase, leading to enhanced tumour growth and metastasis with concomitant poor patient survival. With its multiple roles within the tumour microenvironment, heparanase has been demonstrated to regulate each of these hallmark features, in turn highlighting the need for heparanase-targeted therapies. However, recent discoveries which demonstrated that heparanase can also regulate vital anti-tumour mechanisms have cast doubt on this approach. This review will explore the myriad ways by which heparanase functions as a key regulator of the hallmarks of cancer and will highlight its role as a major component within the tumour microenvironment. The dual role of heparanase within the tumour microenvironment, however, emphasises the need for further investigation into defining its precise mechanism of action in different cancer settings.

Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans: Key Mediators of Stem Cell Function

Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are an evolutionarily ancient subclass of glycoproteins with exquisite structural complexity. They are ubiquitously expressed across tissues and have been found to exert a multitude of effects on cell behavior and the surrounding microenvironment. Evidence has shown that heterogeneity in HSPG composition is crucial to its functions as an essential scaffolding component in the extracellular matrix as well as a vital cell surface signaling co-receptor. Here, we provide an overview of the significance of HSPGs as essential regulators of stem cell function. We discuss the various roles of HSPGs in distinct stem cell types during key physiological events, from development through to tissue homeostasis and regeneration. The contribution of aberrant HSPG production to altered stem cell properties and dysregulated cellular homeostasis characteristic of cancer is also reviewed. Finally, we consider approaches to better understand and exploit the multifaceted functions of HSPGs in influencing stem cell characteristics for cell therapy and associated culture expansion strategies.