Insights Into Mechanisms of Tumor and Immune System Interaction: Association With Wound Healing

Dendritic cells pulsed with penetratin-OLFM4 inhibit the growth and metastasis of melanoma in mice

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) can self-renew and differentiate, contributing to tumor heterogeneity, metastasis, and recurrence. Their resistance to therapies, including immunotherapy, underscores the importance of targeting them for complete remission and relapse prevention. Olfactomedin 4 (OLFM4), a marker associated with various cancers such as colorectal cancer, is expressed on CSCs promoting immune evasion and tumorigenesis. However, its potential as a target for CSC-specific immunotherapy remains underexplored. The primary aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of targeting OLFM4 with dendritic cell (DC)-based vaccines in inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis. To improve antigen delivery and immune response, OLFM4 was conjugated with a protein-transduction domain (PTD) from the antennapedia of Drosophila called penetratin, creating a fusion protein (P-OLFM4). The efficacy of DCs pulsed with P-OLFM4 (DCs [P-OLFM4]) was compared to DCs pulsed with OLFM4 (DCs [OLFM4]) and PBS (DCs [PBS]). DCs [P-OLFM4] inhibited tumor growth by 91.2 % and significantly reduced lung metastasis of OLFM4+ melanoma cells by 97 %, compared to the DCs [PBS]. DCs [OLFM4] also demonstrated a reduction in lung metastasis by 59.7 % compared to DCs [PBS]. Immunization with DCs [P-OLFM4] enhanced OLFM4-specific T-cell proliferation, interferon-γ production, and cytotoxic T cell activity in mice. The results indicate that OLFM4 is a viable target for CSC-focused immunotherapy. DC [P-OLFM4] vaccines can elicit robust immune responses, significantly inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis. This strategy holds promise for developing more effective cancer treatments that specifically target CSCs, potentially leading to better patient outcomes by reducing the likelihood of tumor relapse and metastasis.

Tumor-associated macrophages and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in canine cutaneous and subcutaneous mast cell tumors

Cutaneous and subcutaneous mast cell tumors (MCTs) are common canine neoplasms characterized by variable biological behavior. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) can be effective prognostic markers in numerous human neoplasms and are increasingly investigated in dogs. The aim of this study was to characterize immune cells in canine MCTs and their relationship with histological location (cutaneous, subcutaneous) and histologic nodal metastatic status (HN0-3). Thirty-eight MCTs (26 cutaneous, 12 subcutaneous) from 33 dogs with known sentinel lymph node (SLN) metastatic status were immunolabeled for Iba1 (macrophages), CD20 (B cells), CD3 (T cells), and Foxp3 (regulatory T cells). Semiquantitative scoring of interstitial and perivascular CD3+, CD20+, and Foxp3+ cells and morphological evaluation of Iba1+ cells were performed. For each marker, the percent immunopositive area was evaluated by image analysis. All MCTs were diffusely infiltrated by Iba1+ cells and variably infiltrated by CD20+, CD3+, and rare Foxp3+ cells. Stellate/spindle Iba1+ cells were associated with HN2 and HN3 SLNs. Perivascular Foxp3+ cells, CD3+ cells, and percent CD3+ areas were increased in subcutaneous MCTs. Interstitial CD3+ cells were increased in cutaneous MCTs with HN0 SLNs. No differences in CD20+ cells were identified between cutaneous and subcutaneous MCTs and among SLN classes. MCTs were markedly infiltrated by TAMs and variably infiltrated by TILs. Stellate/spindle morphology of TAMs associated with HN2 and HN3 SLNs is suggestive of a pro-tumoral (M2) phenotype. Cutaneous and subcutaneous MCTs have different tumor-immune microenvironments, and T-cell infiltration might contribute to prevention of nodal metastatic spread of cutaneous MCTs.

The IL-17 family in diseases: from bench to bedside

The interleukin-17 (IL-17) family comprises six members (IL-17A-17F), and recently, all of its related receptors have been discovered. IL-17 was first discovered approximately 30 years ago. Members of this family have various biological functions, including driving an inflammatory cascade during infections and autoimmune diseases, as well as boosting protective immunity against various pathogens. IL-17 is a highly versatile proinflammatory cytokine necessary for vital processes including host immune defenses, tissue repair, inflammatory disease pathogenesis, and cancer progression. However, how IL-17 performs these functions remains controversial. The multifunctional properties of IL-17 have attracted research interest, and emerging data have gradually improved our understanding of the IL-17 signaling pathway. However, a comprehensive review is required to understand its role in both host defense functions and pathogenesis in the body. This review can aid researchers in better understanding the mechanisms underlying IL-17's roles in vivo and provide a theoretical basis for future studies aiming to regulate IL-17 expression and function. This review discusses recent progress in understanding the IL-17 signaling pathway and its physiological roles. In addition, we present the mechanism underlying IL-17's role in various pathologies, particularly, in IL-17-induced systemic lupus erythematosus and IL-17-related tumor cell transformation and metastasis. In addition, we have briefly discussed promising developments in the diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune diseases and tumors.

Orchestration of immune response by innate lymphoid cell subtype 2 at various tumor microenvironment, a suitable target for cancer immunotherapy

Innate lymphoid cells are a mixed population of cells and critical regulators of our innate immune system. According to recent scientific literature, tissue resident innate lymphoid cell subtype 2 has been recognized as an important player of type 2 inflammatory responses, involved in different human malignancies like pancreatic, lung, acute myeloid leukemia, gastrointestinal tract cancer, etc. The current reports have revealed that, among the three main ILC sub types, subtype 2 (ILC 2), as the key regulator of initiating the type 2 inflammatory responses at the tumor microenvironment (TME). This activation of ILC-2 is a very important step for the specific downstream functioning of ILC-2. Priming of ILC-2 with different chemokines involves different cytokine secretion from the activated ILC-2 like IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IL-9 which induce type 2 inflammatory responses involved in the complex interaction with other immune cells like NK cell, Cytotoxic T cell, MDSC and Treg cell. At the initial stage, ILC-2 activation through IL-33 may induce the anti-tumorigenic effect mediated by ILC-2/eosinophil axis. However, it is also evident that PDG2 (Prostaglandin D2)-mediated activation of ILC-2 induces the ILC-2/MDSC immune suppressive pro-tumorigenic niche at the TME. Here, in this review, we have summarized the function of ILC-2 on cancer immunity based on recent scientific work which indicates ILC-2 plays a dual role and orchestrates the immune responses toward type 2 immunity in different cancer settings.

Bv8 mediates myeloid cell migration and enhances malignancy of colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most predominant malignancy in the world. Although the importance of immune system in cancer development has been well established, the underlying mechanisms remain to be investigated further. Here we studied a novel protein prokineticin 2 (Prok2, also known as Bv8) as a key pro-tumoral factor in CRC progression in in vitro and ex vivo settings. Human colorectal tumor tissues, myeloid cell lines (U937 cells and HL60 cells) and colorectal cancer cell line (Caco-2 cells) were used for various studies. Myeloid cell infiltration (especially neutrophils) and Bv8 accumulation were detected in human colorectal tumor tissue with immunostaining. The chemotactic effects of Bv8 on myeloid cells were presented in the transwell assay and chemotaxis assy. Cultured CRC cells treated with myeloid cells or Bv8 produced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Furthermore, ROS and VEGF acted as pro-angiogenesis buffer in myeloid cell-infiltrated CRC microenvironment. Moreover, myeloid cells or Bv8 enhanced energy consumption of glycolysis ATP and mitochondria ATP of CRC cells. Interestingly, myeloid cells increased CRC cell viability, but CRC cells decreased the viability of myeloid cells. ERK signalling pathway in CRC cells was activated in the presence of Bv8 or co-cultured myeloid cells. In conclusion, our data indicated the vital roles of Bv8 in myeloid cell infiltration and CRC development, suggesting that Bv8 may be a potential therapeutic target for colorectal cancer-related immunotherapy.

Predicting the prognosis of esophageal cancer based on extensive analysis of new inflammatory response‐related signature

The prognosis of esophageal cancer (ESCA) is very poor, with a 5-year survival rate of less than 20%. On the other hand, inflammation is the characteristic hallmark of ESCA; however, the prognostic relationship between inflammatory response-related genes and ESCA has not been clarified yet. Therefore, in the present manuscript, we intend to investigate the correlation and specific signature of inflammation for the prediction of the prognosis of ESCA. A total of 173 samples were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, including 162 tumors and 11 normal specimens. The prognostic signature was established by least absolute shrinkage and selection operator Cox regression analysis. The transcription factor regulatory network with genes of the prognostic signature was analyzed from the transcriptional regulatory relationships unravelled by sentence-based text-mining database. Chemotherapy sensitivity and immunotherapy analysis were also performed. Multivariate Cox analysis showed that the signature was an independent prognostic risk factor. The low-risk group had poorer outcomes than the high-risk group. In the high-risk group, the infiltration of most immune cells was high and strongly correlated with the riskScore. In chemotherapeutic drug sensitivity analysis, OSM, AHR, and BTG2 were significantly correlated with the current chemotherapeutic drugs of ESCA. We have demonstrated a valid prognostic signature of inflammatory response-related genes and found strong associations with immune cells, targeted genes, and chemotherapeutic agents.

Advances in Tumor Organoids for the Evaluation of Drugs: A Bibliographic Review

Tumor organoids are defined as self-organized three-dimensional assemblies of heterogeneous cell types derived from patient samples that mimic the key histopathological, genetic, and phenotypic characteristics of the original tumor. This technology is proposed as an ideal candidate for the evaluation of possible therapies against cancer, presenting advantages over other models which are currently used. However, there are no reports in the literature that relate the techniques and material development of tumor organoids or that emphasize in the physicochemical and biological properties of materials that intent to biomimicry the tumor extracellular matrix. There is also little information regarding the tools to identify the correspondence of native tumors and tumoral organoids (tumoroids). Moreover, this paper relates the advantages of organoids compared to other models for drug evaluation. A growing interest in tumoral organoids has arisen from 2009 to the present, aimed at standardizing the process of obtaining organoids, which more accurately resemble patient-derived tumor tissue. Likewise, it was found that the characteristics to consider for the development of organoids, and therapeutic responses of them, are cell morphology, physiology, the interaction between cells, the composition of the cellular matrix, and the genetic, phenotypic, and epigenetic characteristics. Currently, organoids have been used for the evaluation of drugs for brain, lung, and colon tumors, among others. In the future, tumor organoids will become closer to being considered a better model for studying cancer in clinical practice, as they can accurately mimic the characteristics of tumors, in turn ensuring that the therapeutic response aligns with the clinical response of patients.

Cross-talk between the microbiome and chronic inflammation in esophageal cancer: potential driver of oncogenesis

Esophageal cancer (EC) is frequently considered a lethal malignancy and is often identified at a later stage. It is one of the major causes of cancer-related deaths globally. The conventional treatment methods like chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery offer limited efficacy and poor clinical outcome with a less than 25% 5-year survival rate. The poor prognosis of EC persists despite the growth in the development of diagnostic and therapeutic modalities to treat EC. This underlines the need to elucidate the complex molecular mechanisms that drive esophageal oncogenesis. Apart from the role of the tumor microenvironment and its structural and cellular components in tumorigenesis, mounting evidence points towards the involvement of the esophageal microbiome, inflammation, and their cross-talk in promoting esophageal cancer. The current review summarizes recent research that delineates the underlying molecular mechanisms by which the microbiota and inflammation promote the pathophysiology of esophageal cancer, thus unraveling targets for potential therapeutic intervention.

Infection of non-cancer cells: A barrier or support for oncolytic virotherapy?

Oncolytic viruses are designed to specifically target cancer cells, sparing normal cells. Although numerous studies demonstrate the ability of oncolytic viruses to infect a wide range of non-tumor cells, the significance of this phenomenon for cancer virotherapy is poorly understood. To fill the gap, we summarize the data on infection of non-cancer targets by oncolytic viruses with a special focus on tumor microenvironment and secondary lymphoid tissues. The review aims to address two major questions: how do attenuated viruses manage to infect normal cells, and whether it is of importance for oncolytic virotherapy.

Inhibition of tumor recurrence and metastasis via a surgical tumor-derived personalized hydrogel vaccine

Tumor recurrence and metastasis have become thorny problems in clinical tumor therapy. Vaccine-mediated antitumor immune response has emerged as a significant postoperative inhibition for tumor recurrence and metastasis. However, limited tumor antigens are not conducive to trigger complete antigen-specific T cell-mediated immune responses. Herein, the design of a hydrogel vaccine system containing a granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), based on surgically removed tumor cell lysates, was reported. The hydrogel was formed by crosslinking tumor cell lysates and alginate at low temperatures. The GM-CSF was released from the hydrogel to recruit dendritic cells (DCs), which provided a completely personalized tumor antigen pool. They were combined to foster the production of powerful antigen-specific T cells. The personalized hydrogel was implanted at the surgical site and it stimulated the antitumor immune response for the inhibition of residual tumor cells. Delightfully, the personalized hydrogel inhibited the tumor recurrence and metastasis well in a post-surgical mice tumor model, in combination with a programmed death-ligand 1 antibody (αPD-L1). The results demonstrated that the development of a personalized hydrogel and a combination of αPD-L1 provided a new strategy to prevent tumor recurrence and metastasis.

Comprehensive analysis of a new immune-related prognostic signature for esophageal cancer and its correlation with infiltrating immune cells and target genes

Background

The incidence of esophageal cancer (ESCA) is increasing rapidly, and the 5-year survival rate is less than 20%. This study provides new ideas for clinical treatment by establishing a prognostic signature composed of immune-related genes (IRGs), and fully analyzing its relationship with target genes and the tumor microenvironment (TME).

Methods

We downloaded the ESCA expression matrix and clinical information from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Differential expression genes (DEGs) were identified with the edgeR package and crossed with the IRGs we obtained from the ImmPort database to obtain differential IRGs (DEIRGs). The prognostic signature was then obtained through univariate Cox, LASSO-Cox, and multivariate Cox analyses. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was used to evaluate the prediction effect of the model. The immune cell infiltration abundance obtained by ssGSEA and therapeutic target genes was used to perform sufficient correlation analysis with the obtained prognostic signature and related genes.

Results

A total of 173 samples were obtained from TCGA database, including 162 tumor and 11 normal samples. The 3,033 differential genes were used to obtain 254 DEIRGs by intersections with 2,483 IRGs (IRGs) obtained from the ImmPort Database. Finally, multivariate Cox regression analysis identified eight prognostic DEIRGs and established a new prognostic signature (HR: 2.49, 95% CI: 1.68–3.67; P<0.001). Based on the expression of the eight genes, the cohort was then divided into high and low risk groups and Kaplan-Meier (K-M) curves were plotted with the log-rank test P<0.0001 and 1-, 3-year area under the curve (AUC) >0.7. The K-M curves grouped according to high and low risks performed well in the two subgroup validation cohorts, with log-rank test P<0.05. There were differences in the degree of infiltration of 16 kinds of immune cells in tumor and normal samples, and the infiltration abundance of 12 kinds of immune cells was different in the high and low-risk groups.

Conclusions

An effective and validated prognostic signature composed of IRGs was established and had a strong correlation with immune cells and target genes of drug therapy.

The Role of Inflammation in Breast and Prostate Cancer Metastasis to Bone

Tumor metastasis to bone is a common event in multiple forms of malignancy. Inflammation holds essential functions in homeostasis as a defense mechanism against infections and is a strategy to repair injured tissue and to adapt to stress conditions. However, exaggerated and/or persistent (chronic) inflammation may eventually become maladaptive and evoke diseases such as autoimmunity, diabetes, inflammatory tissue damage, fibrosis, and cancer. In fact, inflammation is now considered a hallmark of malignancy with prognostic relevance. Emerging studies have revealed a central involvement of inflammation in several steps of the metastatic cascade of bone-homing tumor cells through supporting their survival, migration, invasion, and growth. The mechanisms by which inflammation favors these steps involve activation of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), chemokine-mediated homing of tumor cells, local activation of osteoclastogenesis, and a positive feedback amplification of the protumorigenic inflammation loop between tumor and resident cells. In this review, we summarize established and evolving concepts of inflammation-driven tumorigenesis, with a special focus on bone metastasis.

Modeling the tumor immune microenvironment for drug discovery using 3D culture

A few decades ago, the notion that a patient's own immune system could recognize and eliminate tumor cells was highly controversial; now, it is the basis for a thriving new field of cancer research, cancer immunology. With these new immune-based cancer treatments come the need for new complex preclinical models to assess their efficacy. Traditional therapeutics have often targeted the intrinsic growth of cancer cells and could, thus, be modeled with 2D monoculture. However, the next generation of therapeutics necessitates significantly greater complexity to model the ability of immune cells to infiltrate, recognize, and eliminate tumor cells. Modeling the physical and chemical barriers to immune infiltration requires consideration of extracellular matrix composition, architecture, and mechanobiology in addition to interactions between multiple cell types. Here, we give an overview of the unique properties of the tumor immune microenvironment, the challenges of creating physiologically relevant 3D culture models for drug discovery, and a perspective on future opportunities to meet this significant challenge.

Cytokine-chemokine network driven metastasis in esophageal cancer; promising avenue for targeted therapy

Esophageal cancer (EC) is a disease often marked by aggressive growth and poor prognosis. Lack of targeted therapies, resistance to chemoradiation therapy, and distant metastases among patients with advanced disease account for the high mortality rate. The tumor microenvironment (TME) contains several cell types, including fibroblasts, immune cells, adipocytes, stromal proteins, and growth factors, which play a significant role in supporting the growth and aggressive behavior of cancer cells. The complex and dynamic interactions of the secreted cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and their receptors mediate chronic inflammation and immunosuppressive TME favoring tumor progression, metastasis, and decreased response to therapy. The molecular changes in the TME are used as biological markers for diagnosis, prognosis, and response to treatment in patients. This review highlighted the novel insights into the understanding and functional impact of deregulated cytokines and chemokines in imparting aggressive EC, stressing the nature and therapeutic consequences of the cytokine-chemokine network. We also discuss cytokine-chemokine oncogenic potential by contributing to the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT), angiogenesis, immunosuppression, metastatic niche, and therapeutic resistance development. In addition, it discusses the wide range of changes and intracellular signaling pathways that occur in the TME. Overall, this is a relatively unexplored field that could provide crucial insights into tumor immunology and encourage the effective application of modulatory cytokine-chemokine therapy to EC.

Nanomedicine-based drug delivery towards tumor biological and immunological microenvironment

The complex tumor microenvironment is a most important factor in cancer development. The biological microenvironment is composed of a variety of barriers including the extracellular matrix and associated cells such as endothelia cells, pericytes, and cancer-associated fibroblasts. Different strategies can be utilized to enhance nanoparticle-based drug delivery and distribution into tumor tissues addressing the extracellular matrix or cellular components. In addition to the biological microenvironment, the immunological conditions around the tumor tissue can be very complicated and cancer cells have various ways of evading immune surveillance. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems can enhance cancer immunotherapy by tuning the immunological response and memory of various immune cells such as T cells, B cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. In this review, the main components in the tumor biological and immunological environment are discussed. The focus is on recent advances in nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems towards targets within the tumor microenvironment to improve cancer chemotherapy and immunotherapy.