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Tan ESJ, Chan SP, Liew OW, Chong JPC, Gerard Leong KT, Daniel Yeo PS, Ong HY, Jaufeerally F, Sim D, Ling LH, Lam CSP, Richards AM. Differential Associations of A-/B-Type Natriuretic Peptides With Cardiac Structure, Function, and Prognosis in Heart Failure. JACC. HEART FAILURE 2024; 12:461-474. [PMID: 37897459 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchf.2023.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Natriuretic peptide (NP) elevations are prognostic in heart failure (HF), but relative atrial NP deficiency in acute HF has been suggested. OBJECTIVES The authors compared plasma concentrations and relative strength of associations of A- and B-type NPs with cardiac structure/function and clinical outcomes in HF. METHODS Midregional pro-atrial natriuretic peptide (MR-proANP), B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), and N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) were measured in patients with compensated HF in a prospective, multicenter study. The primary outcome was a composite of HF-hospitalization or all-cause mortality. Secondary outcomes included individual primary outcome components and cardiovascular admission. RESULTS Among 1,278 patients (age 60.1 ± 12.1 years, 82% men, left ventricular ejection fraction [LVEF] 34% ± 14%), median concentrations of MR-proANP were 990 pg/mL (Q1-Q3: 557-1,563 pg/mL), NT-proBNP 1,648 pg/mL (Q1-Q3: 652-3,960 pg/mL), and BNP 291 pg/mL (Q1-Q3: 103-777 pg/mL). No subpopulation with inappropriately low MR-proANP (relative to BNP/NT-proBNP) was observed. Clinical event rates were similar for biomarker tertiles. Increments in MR-proANP exhibited steeper associations with concurrent shifts in left ventricular size, diastolic indexes and LVEF than BNP/NT-proBNP at baseline and serially (P < 0.05), and lower odds of beneficial left ventricular reverse remodeling: OR: 0.35 (95% CI: 0.18-0.70). In single-biomarker models, MR-proANP(log10) was associated with the highest hazard (4 to 6 times) for each outcome. In multimarker models, independent associations were observed for the primary outcome (MR-proANP and NT-proBNP), HF-hospitalization and cardiovascular admission (MR-proANP only), and all-cause mortality (NT-proBNP only) (P < 0.05). The discriminative value of MR-proANP was superior to BNP/NT-proBNP (HF-hospitalization) and BNP (primary outcome) (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS MR-proANP was not inappropriately low relative to concurrent BNP/NT-proBNP values. Proportional increments in MR-proANP were more pronounced than for B-peptides for given decrements in cardiac structure/function. MR-proANP offered greater independent predictive power overall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene S J Tan
- National University Heart Centre, Singapore; Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Singapore, Singapore
| | - Siew Pang Chan
- National University Heart Centre, Singapore; Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Singapore, Singapore
| | - Oi Wah Liew
- Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jenny P C Chong
- Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Singapore, Singapore
| | | | | | - Hean Yee Ong
- Department of Cardiology, Khoo Teck Puat Hospital, Singapore
| | - Fazlur Jaufeerally
- Department of Internal Medicine, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore; Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - David Sim
- Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore; National Heart Centre, Singapore
| | - Lieng Hsi Ling
- National University Heart Centre, Singapore; Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Singapore, Singapore
| | - Carolyn S P Lam
- Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore; National Heart Centre, Singapore; University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; The George Institute for Global Health, New South Wales, Australia
| | - A Mark Richards
- National University Heart Centre, Singapore; Christchurch Heart Institute, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Cardiovascular Research Institute, National University Health System, Singapore.
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Rahbar Kouibaran F, Sabatino M, Barozzi C, Diemberger I. Atrial Natriuretic Peptides as a Bridge between Atrial Fibrillation, Heart Failure, and Amyloidosis of the Atria. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076470. [PMID: 37047444 PMCID: PMC10095038 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
ANP is mainly synthesized by the atria, and upon excretion, it serves two primary purposes: vasodilation and increasing the renal excretion of sodium and water. The understanding of ANP's role in cardiac systems has improved considerably in recent decades. This review focuses on several studies demonstrating the importance of analyzing the regulations between the endocrine and mechanical function of the heart and emphasizes the effect of ANP, as the primary hormone of the atria, on atrial fibrillation (AF) and related diseases. The review first discusses the available data on the diagnostic and therapeutic applications of ANP and then explains effect of ANP on heart failure (HF) and atrial fibrillation (AF) and vice versa, where tracking ANP levels could lead to understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms operating in these diseases. Second, it focuses on conventional treatments for AF, such as cardioversion and catheter ablation, and their effects on cardiac endocrine and mechanical function. Finally, it provides a point of view about the delayed recovery of cardiac mechanical and endocrine function after cardioversion, which can contribute to the occurrence of acute heart failure, and the potential impact of restoration of the sinus rhythm by extensive ablation or surgery in losing ANP-producing sites. Overall, ANP plays a key role in heart failure through its effects on vasodilation and natriuresis, leading to a decrease in the activity of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, but it is crucial to understand the intimate role of ANP in HF and AF to improve their diagnosis and personalizing the patients' treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mario Sabatino
- Unit of Heart Failure and Transplantation, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Chiara Barozzi
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Igor Diemberger
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- Unit of Cardiology, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
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Liem DA, Cadeiras M, Setty SP. Insights and perspectives into clinical biomarker discovery in pediatric heart failure and congenital heart disease-a narrative review. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther 2023; 13:83-99. [PMID: 36864972 PMCID: PMC9971290 DOI: 10.21037/cdt-22-386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Background and Objective Heart failure (HF) in the pediatric population is a multi-factorial process with a wide spectrum of etiologies and clinical manifestations, that are distinct from the adult HF population, with congenital heart disease (CHD) as the most common cause. CHD has high morbidity/mortality with nearly 60% developing HF during the first 12 months of life. Hence, early discovery and diagnosis of CHD in neonates is pivotal. Plasma B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) is an increasingly popular clinical marker in pediatric HF, however, in contrast to adult HF, it is not yet included in pediatric HF guidelines and there is no standardized reference cut-off value. We explore the current trends and prospects of biomarkers in pediatric HF, including CHD that can aid in diagnosis and management. Methods As a narrative review, we will analyze biomarkers with respect to diagnosis and monitoring in specific anatomical types of CHD in the pediatric population considering all English PubMed publications till June 2022. Key Content and Findings We present a concise description of our own experience in applying plasma BNP as a clinical biomarker in pediatric HF and CHD (tetralogy of fallot vs. ventricular septal defect) in the context of surgical correction, as well as untargeted metabolomics analyses. In the current age of Information Technology and large data sets we also explored new biomarker discovery using Text Mining of 33M manuscripts currently on PubMed. Conclusions (Multi) Omics studies from patient samples as well as Data Mining can be considered for the discovery of potential pediatric HF biomarkers useful in clinical care. Future research should focus on validation and defining evidence-based value limits and reference ranges for specific indications using the most up-to-date assays in parallel to commonly used studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Liem
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Disease, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Martin Cadeiras
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Disease, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Shaun P. Setty
- Department of Pediatric and Adult Congenital Cardiac Surgery, Miller Children’s and Women’s Hospital and Long Beach Memorial Hospital, Long Beach, CA, USA
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Obonyo NG, Olupot-Olupot P, Mpoya A, Nteziyaremye J, Chebet M, Uyoga S, Muhindo R, Fanning JP, Shiino K, Chan J, Fraser JF, Maitland K. A Clinical and Physiological Prospective Observational Study on the Management of Pediatric Shock in the Post-Fluid Expansion as Supportive Therapy Trial Era. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2022; 23:502-513. [PMID: 35446796 PMCID: PMC7613033 DOI: 10.1097/pcc.0000000000002968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Fluid bolus resuscitation in African children is harmful. Little research has evaluated physiologic effects of maintenance-only fluid strategy. DESIGN We describe the efficacy of fluid-conservative resuscitation of septic shock using case-fatality, hemodynamic, and myocardial function endpoints. SETTING Pediatric wards of Mbale Regional Referral Hospital, Uganda, and Kilifi County Hospital, Kenya, conducted between October 2013 and July 2015. Data were analysed from August 2016 to July 2019. PATIENTS Children (≥ 60 d to ≤ 12 yr) with severe febrile illness and clinical signs of impaired perfusion. INTERVENTIONS IV maintenance fluid (4 mL/kg/hr) unless children had World Health Organization (WHO) defined shock (≥ 3 signs) where they received two fluid boluses (20 mL/kg) and transfusion if shock persisted. Clinical, electrocardiographic, echocardiographic, and laboratory data were collected at presentation, during resuscitation and on day 28. Outcome measures were 48-hour mortality, normalization of hemodynamics, and cardiac biomarkers. MEASUREMENT AND MAIN RESULTS Thirty children (70% males) were recruited, six had WHO shock, all of whom died (6/6) versus three of 24 deaths in the non-WHO shock. Median fluid volume received by survivors and nonsurvivors were similar (13 [interquartile range (IQR), 9-32] vs 30 mL/kg [28-61 mL/kg], z = 1.62, p = 0.23). By 24 hours, we observed increases in median (IQR) stroke volume index (39 mL/m 2 [32-42 mL/m 2 ] to 47 mL/m 2 [41-49 mL/m 2 ]) and a measure of systolic function: fractional shortening from 30 (27-33) to 34 (31-38) from baseline including children managed with no-bolus. Children with WHO shock had a higher mean level of cardiac troponin ( t = 3.58; 95% CI, 1.24-1.43; p = 0.02) and alpha-atrial natriuretic peptide ( t = 16.5; 95% CI, 2.80-67.5; p < 0.01) at admission compared with non-WHO shock. Elevated troponin (> 0.1 μg/mL) and hyperlactatemia (> 4 mmol/L) were putative makers predicting outcome. CONCLUSIONS Maintenance-only fluid therapy normalized clinical and myocardial perturbations in shock without compromising cardiac or hemodynamic function whereas fluid-bolus management of WHO shock resulted in high fatality. Troponin and lactate biomarkers of cardiac dysfunction could be promising outcome predictors in pediatric septic shock in resource-limited settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nchafatso G Obonyo
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Clinical Sciences Department, Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Initiative to Develop African Research Leaders, Kilifi, Kenya
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute, Department of Paediatrics, Mbale, Uganda
- Critical Care Research Group, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, VIC, Australia
| | - Peter Olupot-Olupot
- Initiative to Develop African Research Leaders, Kilifi, Kenya
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute, Department of Paediatrics, Mbale, Uganda
- Busitema University, Faculty of Health sciences, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Ayub Mpoya
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Clinical Sciences Department, Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
| | | | - Martin Chebet
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute, Department of Paediatrics, Mbale, Uganda
- Busitema University, Faculty of Health sciences, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Sophie Uyoga
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Clinical Sciences Department, Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Initiative to Develop African Research Leaders, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Rita Muhindo
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute, Department of Paediatrics, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Jonathon P Fanning
- Critical Care Research Group, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, VIC, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, VIC, Australia
| | - Kenji Shiino
- Critical Care Research Group, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, VIC, Australia
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Jonathan Chan
- Critical Care Research Group, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, VIC, Australia
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - John F Fraser
- Critical Care Research Group, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, VIC, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, VIC, Australia
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Kathryn Maitland
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Clinical Sciences Department, Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Department of Infectious Disease and Institute of Global Health and Innovation, Division of Medicine, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
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Komane PP, Kumar P, Choonara YE. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide Antibody-Functionalised, PEGylated Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes for Targeted Ischemic Stroke Intervention. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13091357. [PMID: 34575433 PMCID: PMC8471373 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13091357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke is one of the major causes of disability and the second major cause of death around the globe. There is a dire need for an ultrasensitive detection tool and an effective and efficient therapeutic system for both detection and treatment of stroke at its infancy stage. Carbon nanotubes are promising nanomaterials for tackling these challenges. The loading of dexamethasone and decoration of PEGylated multiwalled carbon nanotube with atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) antibody and fluorescein isothiocyanate for targeting ischemic site in the rat stroke model is presented here. Functionalisation of carbon nanotubes with dexamethasone (DEX), polyethylene glycol (PEG), fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), and ANP antibody caused a 63-fold increase in the D band intensity as illustrated by Raman. The characteristic band intensity increase was observed at 1636 nm following functionalisation of carbon nanotubes with polyethylene glycol and dexamethasone as confirmed by Fourier Transform Infrared. These findings have demonstrated the coupling capability of atrial natriuretic peptide antibody to DEX-PEG-CNTs. The baseline plasma atrial natriuretic peptide levels were ranging from 118 to 135.70 pg/mL prior to surgery and from 522.09 to 552.37 following common carotid artery occlusion. A decrease in atrial natriuretic peptide levels to 307.77 was observed when the rats were treated with FITC-DEX-PEG-ANP-CNTs, PEG-CNTs and DEX with a significant drop in the FITC-DEX-PEG-ANP-CNTs treated group. Fluorescence was detected in FITC-DEX-PEG-CNTs and FITC-DEX-PEG-ANP-CNTs treated ischemic stroke rats. The highest fluorescence intensity was reported in plasma (2179) followed by the kidney (1563) and liver (1507). These findings suggest a beneficial role that is played by the FITC-DEX-PEG-ANP-CNTs in the reduction of inflammation in the ischemic stroke induced rats that could induce a successful treatment of ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick P. Komane
- Wits Advanced Drug Delivery Platform Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Therapeutic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa; (P.P.K.); (P.K.)
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Johannesburg, 27 Nind Street, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa
| | - Pradeep Kumar
- Wits Advanced Drug Delivery Platform Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Therapeutic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa; (P.P.K.); (P.K.)
| | - Yahya E. Choonara
- Wits Advanced Drug Delivery Platform Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Therapeutic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa; (P.P.K.); (P.K.)
- Correspondence:
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Thomsen CF, Goharian TS, Larsen KT, Goetze JP, Andersen LB, Jeppesen JL. Intensive Lifestyle Intervention Increases Plasma Midregional Proatrial Natriuretic Peptide Concentrations in Overweight Children. J Am Heart Assoc 2021; 10:e020676. [PMID: 34180245 PMCID: PMC8403313 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.121.020676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Background Overweight adults have low circulating concentrations of ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) and proANP fragments. We tested the hypothesis that an intensive lifestyle intervention with an intended weight loss would increase plasma concentrations of a proANP fragment in overweight children. Methods and Results We measured MR‐proANP (midregional proANP) concentrations in plasma from overweight children who participated in the OOIS (Odense Overweight Intervention Study). OOIS randomized 115 overweight children (11–13 years, 55% girls) to an intensive day‐camp intervention arm with increased physical activity and healthy diet or to a less intensive standard intervention arm for 6 weeks. We used linear mixed‐effects modeling for repeated measures to estimate the difference in the mean change with 95% CIs in fasting plasma MR‐proANP concentrations between the 2 arms, and we used partial least squares regression analysis to identify candidate mediators. Differences in weight, fitness, and metabolic factors were also analyzed. At baseline, fasting plasma MR‐proANP concentrations were (median [interquartile range]) 35.0 pmol/L (26.8–42.0) in the day‐camp intervention arm and 37.2 pmol/L (31.7–44.7) in standard intervention arm participants, respectively. After 6 weeks intervention, children in the day‐camp intervention arm had increased their MR‐proANP (5.4 pmol/L [0.8–10.0], P=0.022) and their fitness (2.33 mL O2/min per kg [0.52–4.14], P=0.012) and they had deceased their body mass index (−2.12 kg/m2 [−2.59 to −1.65], P<0.001) as compared with children in standard intervention arm. In the partial least squares analysis, decreases in fasting insulin and in estimated insulin resistance were associated with the observed increase in MR‐proANP concentrations. Conclusions An intensive lifestyle intervention increases plasma MR‐proANP among overweight children. Registration URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT01574352.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla F Thomsen
- Department of Medicine Amager Hvidovre Hospital in GlostrupUniversity of Copenhagen Glostrup Denmark
| | - Tina S Goharian
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry Nordsjællands Hospital HillerødUniversity of Copenhagen Hillerød Denmark
| | - Kristian T Larsen
- Center of Research in Childhood Health (RICH) Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics University of Southern Denmark Odense Denmark
| | - Jens P Goetze
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry Rigshospitalet BlegdamsvejUniversity of Copenhagen Denmark.,Department of Biomedical Sciences Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences University of Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Lars B Andersen
- Department of Sport, Food, and Natural Sciences Campus SogndalWestern Norway University of Applied Sciences, Sogndal Norway
| | - Jørgen L Jeppesen
- Department of Medicine Amager Hvidovre Hospital in GlostrupUniversity of Copenhagen Glostrup Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences University of Copenhagen Denmark
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Burdman I, Burckhardt BB. Prorenin and active renin levels in paediatrics: a bioanalytical review. Clin Chem Lab Med 2020; 59:275-285. [PMID: 32813674 DOI: 10.1515/cclm-2020-0857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
As part of the extended renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, active renin and its precursor prorenin have been an area of research interest for decades. Although several studies showed a correlation with disease, other studies found no significant association, e.g. attributed to limited sample size or pharmacological effects of antihypertensive drugs. Since the measurement of both proteins has typically been carried out in adult populations, the data in paediatrics is limited. This review aimed to collate the current data on plasma renin and prorenin levels in children and compare the levels of healthy vs. the diseased state. A literature search using Medline resulted in 213 publications of which 15 studies were classified as relevant. In the extant studies in the literature, an age-dependent decline of renin plasma concentration was observed in newborns compared to adolescents. For children with cardiovascular disease, five studies were identified that provide limited insight into the pathophysiological regulation of renin. In general, sample handling is still a crucial step, which might particularly affect measured active renin concentrations due to conformational changes of its precursor prorenin. A reliable assessment for prorenin levels in the maturating population is yet not possible due to the low number of available publications. Three different approaches to quantify prorenin were found and raise the question on the comparability of these methods. The review emphazised several weaknesses and highlights the need for an accurate procedure to determine levels of active renin as well as prorenin in its closed and open form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilja Burdman
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacotherapy, Heinrich-Heine-University, Dusseldorf, Germany
| | - Bjoern B Burckhardt
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacotherapy, Heinrich-Heine-University, Dusseldorf, Germany
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Abstract
Investigations into the mixed muscle-secretory phenotype of cardiomyocytes from the atrial appendages of the heart led to the discovery that these cells produce, in a regulated manner, two polypeptide hormones - the natriuretic peptides - referred to as atrial natriuretic factor or atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain or B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), thereby demonstrating an endocrine function for the heart. Studies on the gene encoding ANP (NPPA) initiated the field of modern research into gene regulation in the cardiovascular system. Additionally, ANP and BNP were found to be the natural ligands for cell membrane-bound guanylyl cyclase receptors that mediate the effects of natriuretic peptides through the generation of intracellular cGMP, which interacts with specific enzymes and ion channels. Natriuretic peptides have many physiological actions and participate in numerous pathophysiological processes. Important clinical entities associated with natriuretic peptide research include heart failure, obesity and systemic hypertension. Plasma levels of natriuretic peptides have proven to be powerful diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers of heart disease. Development of pharmacological agents that are based on natriuretic peptides is an area of active research, with vast potential benefits for the treatment of cardiovascular disease.
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