Strategies for Optimizing Growth in Children With Chronic Kidney Disease

Growth in children with chronic kidney disease and associated risk factors for short stature

INTRODUCTION

Growth failure in chronic kidney disease is related to high morbidity and mortality. Growth retardation in this disease is multifactorial. Knowing the modifiable factors and establishing strategies to improve care for affected children is paramount.

OBJECTIVES

To describe growth patterns in children with chronic kidney disease and the risk factors associated with short stature.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed anthropometric and epidemiological data, birth weight, prematurity, and bicarbonate, hemoglobin, calcium, phosphate, alkaline phosphatase, and parathormone levels of children with stages 3-5 CKD not on dialysis, followed for at least one year.

RESULTS

We included 43 children, the majority of which were boys (65%). The mean height/length /age z-score of the children at the beginning and follow-up was -1.89 ± 1.84 and -2.4 ± 1.67, respectively (p = 0.011). Fifty-one percent of the children had short stature, and these children were younger than those with adequate stature (p = 0.027). PTH levels at the beginning of the follow-up correlated with height/length/age z-score. A sub-analysis with children under five (n = 17) showed that 10 (58.8%) of them failed to thrive and had a lower weight/age z-score (0.031) and lower BMI/age z-score (p = 0.047).

CONCLUSION

Children, particularly younger ones, with chronic kidney disease who were not on dialysis had a high prevalence of short stature. PTH levels were correlated with height z-score, and growth failure was associated with worse nutritional status. Therefore, it is essential to monitor the growth of these children, control hyperparathyroidism, and provide nutritional support.

Nutritional management of the child with chronic kidney disease and on dialysis

While it is widely accepted that the nutritional management of the infant with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is paramount to achieve normal growth and development, nutritional management is also of importance beyond 1 year of age, particularly in toddlers, to support the delayed infantile stage of growth that may extend to 2-3 years of age. Puberty is also a vulnerable period when nutritional needs are higher to support the expected growth spurt. Inadequate nutritional intake throughout childhood can result in failure to achieve full adult height potential, and there is an increased risk for abnormal neurodevelopment. Conversely, the rising prevalence of overweight and obesity among children with CKD underscores the necessity for effective nutritional strategies to mitigate the risk of metabolic syndrome that is not confined to the post-transplant population. Nutritional management is of primary importance in improving metabolic equilibrium and reducing CKD-related imbalances, particularly as the range of foods eaten by the child widens as they get older (including increased consumption of processed foods), and as CKD progresses. The aim of this review is to integrate the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce (PRNT) clinical practice recommendations (CPRs) for children (1-18 years) with CKD stages 2-5 and on dialysis (CKD2-5D). We provide a holistic approach to the overall nutritional management of the toddler, child, and young person. Collaboration between physicians and pediatric kidney dietitians is strongly advised to ensure comprehensive and tailored nutritional care for children with CKD, ultimately optimizing their growth and development.

Chronic Kidney Disease and Growth Failure in Children

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a significant challenge for pediatric endocrinologists, as children with CKD may present a variety of endocrine complications. Growth failure is common in CKD, and its severity is correlated with the degree of renal insufficiency. Management strategies include addressing reversible comorbidities, optimizing nutrition, and ensuring metabolic control. Kidney replacement therapy, including transplantation, determines a significant improvement in growth. According to a recent Consensus Statement, children with CKD stage 3-or on dialysis older >6 months-are eligible for treatment with recombinant growth hormone (rGH) in the case of persistent growth failure. Treatment with rGH may be considered for those with height between the 3rd and 10th percentile and persistent growth deceleration. In children who received kidney transplantation but continue to experience growth failure, initiation of GH therapy is recommended one year post-transplantation if spontaneous catch-up growth does not occur and steroid-free immunosuppression is not an option. In children with CKD, due to nephropathic cystinosis and persistent growth failure, GH therapy should be considered at all stages of CKD. Potential adverse effects and benefits must be regularly assessed during therapy. Treatment with GH is safe in children with CKD. However, its general efficacy is still controversial. All possible problems with a negative impact on growth should be timely addressed and resolved, whenever possible with a personalized approach to the patient. GH therapy may be useful in promoting catch-up growth in children with residual growth potential. Future research should focus on refining effective therapeutic strategies and establishing consensus guidelines to optimize growth outcomes in this population.

Clearance and nutrition in neonatal continuous kidney replacement therapy using the Carpediem™ system

BACKGROUND

Infants with kidney failure (KF) demonstrate poor growth partly due to obligate fluid and protein restrictions. Delivery of liberalized nutrition on continuous kidney replacement therapy (CKRT) is impacted by clinical instability, technical dialysis challenges, solute clearance, and nitrogen balance. We analyzed delivered nutrition and growth in infants receiving CKRT with the Cardio-Renal, Pediatric Dialysis Emergency Machine (Carpediem™).

METHODS

Single-center observational study of infants receiving CKRT with the Carpediem™ between June 1 and December 31, 2021. We collected prospective circuit characteristics, delivered nutrition, anthropometric measurements, and illness severity Score for Neonatal Acute Physiology-II. As a surrogate to normalized protein catabolic rate in maintenance hemodialysis, we calculated normalized protein nitrogen appearance (nPNA) using the Randerson II continuous dialysis model. Descriptive statistics, Spearman correlation coefficient, Mann Whitney, Wilcoxon signed rank, receiver operating characteristic curves, and Kruskal-Wallis analysis were performed using SAS version 9.4.

RESULTS

Eight infants received 31.9 (22.0, 49.7) days of CKRT using mostly (90%) regional citrate anticoagulation. Delivered nutritional volume, protein, total calories, enteral calories, nPNA, and nitrogen balance increased on CKRT. Using parenteral nutrition, 90 ml/kg/day should meet caloric and protein needs. Following initial weight loss of likely fluid overload, exploratory sensitivity analysis suggests weight gain occurred after 14 days of CKRT. Despite adequate nutritional delivery, goal weight (z-score = 0) and growth velocity were not achieved until 6 months after CKRT start. Most (5 infants, 62.5%) survived and transitioned to peritoneal dialysis (PD).

CONCLUSIONS

Carpediem™ is a safe and efficacious bridge to PD in neonatal KF. Growth velocity of infants on CKRT appears delayed despite delivery of adequate calories and protein.

Growth after pediatric kidney transplantation: a 25-year study in a pediatric kidney transplant center

OBJECTIVES

Growth failure is one of the major complications of pediatric chronic kidney disease. Even after a kidney transplant (KT), up to 50 % of patients fail to achieve the expected final height. This study aimed to assess longitudinal growth after KT and identify factors influencing it.

METHODS

A retrospective observational study was performed. We reviewed the clinical records of all patients who underwent KT for 25 years in a single center (n=149) and performed telephone interviews. Height-for-age and body mass index (BMI)-for-age were examined at KT, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, and 5 years post-transplant and at the transition to adult care. We evaluated target height, disease duration before KT, need and type of dialysis, recombinant human growth hormone pretransplant use, nutritional support, glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and cumulative corticosteroid dose.

RESULTS

At transplant, the average height z-score was -1.38, and height z-scores showed catch-up growth at 6 months (z-score -1.26, p=0.006), 1 year (z-score -1.15, p<0.001), 5 years after KT (z-score -1.08, p<0.001), and on transition to adult care (z-score -1.22, p=0.012). Regarding BMI z-scores, a significant increase was also detected at all time points (p<0.001). After KT, GFR was significantly associated with height z-score (p=0.006) and BMI z-score (p=0.006). The height in transition to adult care was -1.28 SD compared to the target height.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the encouraging results regarding catch-up growth after KT in this cohort, results remain far from optimum, with a lower-than-expected height at the time of transition.

Chronic Kidney Disease Interplay with Comorbidities and Carbohydrate Metabolism: A Review

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) poses a global health challenge, engendering various physiological and metabolic shifts that significantly impact health and escalate the susceptibility to severe illnesses. This comprehensive review delves into the intricate complexities of CKD, scrutinizing its influence on cellular growth homeostasis, hormonal equilibrium, wasting, malnutrition, and its interconnectedness with inflammation, oxidative stress, and cardiovascular diseases. Exploring the genetic, birth-related, and comorbidity factors associated with CKD, alongside considerations of metabolic disturbances, anemia, and malnutrition, the review elucidates how CKD orchestrates cellular growth control. A pivotal focus lies on the nexus between CKD and insulin resistance, where debates persist regarding its chronological relationship with impaired kidney function. The prevalence of insulin abnormalities in CKD is emphasized, contributing to glucose intolerance and raising questions about its role as a precursor or consequence. Moreover, the review sheds light on disruptions in the growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor axis in CKD, underscoring the heightened vulnerability to illness and mortality in cases of severe growth retardation. Wasting, a prevalent concern affecting up to 75% of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients, is analyzed, elucidating the manifestations of cachexia and its impact on appetite, energy expenditure, and protein reserves. Taste disturbances in CKD, affecting sour, umami, and salty tastes, are explored for their implications on food palatability and nutritional status. Independent of age and gender, these taste alterations have the potential to sway dietary choices, further complicating the management of CKD. The intricate interplay between CKD, inflammation, oxidative stress, and cardiovascular diseases is unraveled, emphasizing the profound repercussions on overall health. Additionally, the review extends its analysis to CKD's broader impact on cognitive function, emotional well-being, taste perception, and endothelial dysfunction. Concluding with an emphasis on dietary interventions as crucial components in CKD management, this comprehensive review navigates the multifaceted dimensions of CKD, providing a nuanced understanding essential for developing targeted therapeutic strategies.

Bone Disorders in Pediatric Chronic Kidney Disease: A Literature Review

Intense changes in mineral and bone metabolism are frequent in chronic kidney disease (CKD) and represent an important cause of morbidity and reduced quality of life. These disorders have conventionally been defined as renal osteodystrophy and classified based on bone biopsy, but due to a lack of bone biopsy data and validated radiological methods to evaluate bone morphology in children, it has been challenging to effectively assess renal osteodystrophy in pediatric CKD; the consequence has been the suboptimal management of bone disorders in children. CKD-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD) is a new expression used to describe a systemic disorder of mineral and bone metabolism as a result of CKD. CKD-MBD is a triad of biochemical imbalances in calcium, phosphate, parathyroid hormone, and vitamin D; bone deformities and soft tissue calcification. This literature review aims to explore the pathogenesis, diagnostic approach, and treatment of CKD-MBD in children and the effects of renal osteodystrophy on growing skeleton, with a specific focus on the biological basis of this peculiar condition.

Design and development of opto-electrochemical biosensing devices for diagnosing chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is emerging as one of the major causes of the increase in mortality rate and is expected to become 5th major cause by 2050. Many studies have shown that it is majorly related to various risk factors, and thus becoming one of the major health issues around the globe. Early detection of renal disease lowers the overall burden of disease by preventing individuals from developing kidney impairment. Therefore, diagnosis and prevention of CKD are becoming the major challenges, and in this situation, biosensors have emerged as one of the best possible solutions. Biosensors are becoming one of the preferred choices for various diseases diagnosis as they provide simpler, cost-effective and precise methods for onsite detection. In this review, we have tried to discuss the globally developed biosensors for the detection of CKD, focusing on their design, pattern, and applicability in real samples. Two major classifications of biosensors based on transduction systems, that is, optical and electrochemical, for kidney disease have been discussed in detail. Also, the major focus is given to clinical biomarkers such as albumin, creatinine, and others related to kidney dysfunction. Furthermore, the globally developed sensors for the detection of CKD are discussed in tabulated form comparing their analytical performance, response time, specificity as well as performance in biological fluids.

Time from kidney failure onset to transplantation and its impact on growth in pediatric patients

BACKGROUND

In children with kidney failure, the longer the duration of dialysis the greater the impact on growth deficit, quality of life, and life expectancy. The aim of this research is to test whether there was a shortening of treatment time from kidney failure to transplantation in pediatric patients and whether this time interval impacted height.

METHODS

Observational retrospective cohort study from 2005 to 2018. The first outcome variable was time to transplantation in years, while the second was height/age standard deviation score (SDS) at transplantation. Cox regression models were used to analyze time from disease to transplantation and linear regression was employed to test the association of the year of kidney failure onset with height.

RESULTS

A total of 780 children were evaluated and 517 underwent kidney transplantation after a median time of 1.9 years (IQR = 1.0-4.0). The variables significantly associated with time to transplant were: year of kidney failure onset (HR = 1.07; 95% CI: 1.05-1.10; p < .001), age at kidney failure onset <12 years (HR = 0.59; 95% CI: 0.49-0.71; p < .001), living in different state as transplant center (HR = 0.63; 95% CI: 0.53-0.77; p < .001), and undergoing blood transfusion before transplantation (HR = 0.63; 95% CI: 0.53-0.75; p < .001). Regarding growth, for each 1-year increase in the epoch of kidney failure onset, a 0.05 SDS raise in height/age is expected (p < .001).

CONCLUSION

Children with recent kidney failure onset had significantly lower time to the outcome and this reduction was associated with a less severe growth deficit.

Evaluation of height centile growth patterns compared with parental-adjusted target height following kidney transplantation

BACKGROUND

Early steroid withdrawal (ESW) improves growth following kidney transplant (KT). It is not known whether these children achieve target height within mid-parental height range post-KT.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of growth patterns of KT recipients following ESW in our center between 2009 and 2020 had minimum follow-up period of 12 months.

RESULTS

Forty-eight (female 29.2%) KT recipients, median age 5.3 years at first KT, were included. At KT, 29 (60.4%) recipients had normal height (SDS≥-1.88) and in 23 (47.9%), the height was within their target height (parental-adjusted height SDS within ±1.55). The proportion of children achieving normal height at 1-, 2-, 3-, and 5-years post-KT (median 5.5 years) were 75%, 83.3%, 86.5%, and 88% respectively. The proportion of children achieving target height measured at the same intervals was 68.8%, 73.8%, 73%, and 80%, respectively. Children <6 years were most growth impaired at KT but were most likely to achieve target height within first-year post-KT (72%; p = .023). All 19 children with short stature at KT received dialysis. Three children received growth hormone post-KT. Children who did not achieve target height post-KT (n = 14), five had eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m² , and eight were on corticosteroid therapy at latest follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Although vast majority of children achieved normal height post-KT following ESW during the first 5 years post-KT, 20% of these children had not achieved their target height post-KT.

Nutritional management of the infant with chronic kidney disease stages 2-5 and on dialysis

The nutritional management of children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is of prime importance in meeting the challenge of maintaining normal growth and development in this population. The objective of this review is to integrate the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce clinical practice recommendations for children with CKD stages 2-5 and on dialysis, as they relate to the infant from full term birth up to 1 year of age, for healthcare professionals, including dietitians, physicians, and nurses. It addresses nutritional assessment, energy and protein requirements, delivery of the nutritional prescription, and necessary dietary modifications in the case of abnormal serum levels of calcium, phosphate, and potassium. We focus on the particular nutritional needs of infants with CKD for whom dietary recommendations for energy and protein, based on body weight, are higher compared with children over 1 year of age in order to support both linear and brain growth, which are normally maximal in the first 6 months of life. Attention to nutrition during infancy is important given that growth is predominantly nutrition dependent in the infantile phase and the growth of infants is acutely impaired by disruption to their nutritional intake, particularly during the first 6 months. Inadequate nutritional intake can result in the failure to achieve full adult height potential and an increased risk for abnormal neurodevelopment. We strongly suggest that physicians work closely with pediatric renal dietitians to ensure that the infant with CKD receives the best possible nutritional management to optimize their growth and development.

Assessment of puberty in children with chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease undergoing hemodialysis

Background

Growth and pubertal retardation are one of the most visible comorbidities in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) under regular hemodialysis. This study evaluated pubertal development in children and adolescents with CKD and ESRD on regular hemodialysis.

Methods

This study was carried out on 40 children with CKD and 20 with ESRD under regular hemodialysis. All patients and controls were subjected to a thorough clinical examination pubertal assessment.

Results

There was a statistically significant difference in the breast or testicular stage of the three groups (P < 0.001). Most cases of ESRD were either stages 1 or 2 (50.0%, 45.0%, respectively). The CKD cases were also stages 1 and 2 (35.7%, 52.4%, respectively). The controls were in stages 3 and 4 (44.3 and 29.5%, respectively), which showed normal development for age. There was a statistically significant difference in the pubic hair stage and axillary hair stage of the three groups (P < 0.001). Most cases of ESRD were either stages 1 or 2 (55.0%, 40.0%, respectively). The CKD cases were also between stages 1 and 2 (38.1%, 52.4%, respectively), with a higher level in stage 2. Of the control group, 39.3% was stage 3, and 36.1% was stage 4, with a higher level in stage 3 proving normal development for age.

Conclusion

Pubertal growth and sexual maturation in children with CKD and ESRD are markedly affected. It is necessary to regularly follow up with children with ESRD for early detection of endocrinal complications.

Design and Engineering of a Palm-Sized Optical Immunosensing Device for the Detection of a Kidney Dysfunction Biomarker

Creatinine is one of the most common and specific biomarkers for renal diseases, usually found in the serum and urine of humans. Its level is extremely important and critical to know, not only in the case of renal diseases, but also for various other pathological conditions. Hence, detecting creatinine in clinically relevant ranges in a simplistic and personalized manner is interesting and important. In this direction, an optical sensing device has been developed for the simple, point-of-care detection of creatinine. The developed biosensor was able to detect creatinine quantitatively based on optical signals measured through a change in color. The sensor has been integrated with a smartphone to develop a palm-sized device for creatinine analysis in personalized settings. The sensor has been developed following facile chemical modification steps to anchor the creatinine-selective antibody to generate a sensing probe. The fabricated sensor has been thoroughly characterized by FTIR, AFM, and controlled optical analyses. The quantitative analysis is mediated through the reaction between picric acid and creatinine which was detected by the antibody-functionalized sensor probe. The differences in color intensity and creatinine concentrations show an excellent dose-dependent correlation in two different dynamic ranges from 5 to 20 μM and 35 to 400 μM, with a detection limit of 15.37 (±0.79) nM. Several interfering molecules, such as albumin, glucose, ascorbic acid, citric acid, glycine, uric acid, Na⁺, K⁺, and Cl^-, were tested using the biosensor, in which no cross-reactivity was observed. The utility of the developed system to quantify creatinine in spiked serum samples was validated and the obtained percentage recoveries were found within the range of 89.71-97.30%. The fabricated biosensor was found to be highly reproducible and stable, and it retains its original signal for up to 28 days.

Practice patterns and outcomes of maintenance dialysis in children < 2 years of age: a report of the North American Pediatric Renal Trials and Collaborative Studies (NAPRTCS)

BACKGROUND

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is the preferred mode of kidney replacement therapy (KRT) in infants and young children with kidney failure. Hemodialysis (HD) is used less often due to the technical challenges and risk of complications in smaller patients. There are limited data on chronic HD in this patient population.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study of children younger than 24 months on HD and PD in the North American Pediatric Renal Trials and Collaborative Studies (NAPRTCS) registry between January 1992 and December 2018. We compared demographic, clinical, and laboratory data and outcomes, including patient survival and kidney transplantation.

RESULTS

We identified 1125 infants and toddlers younger than 2 years of age who initiated KRT from January 1992 to December 2018. Of those, 1011 (89.8%) initiated peritoneal dialysis and 114 (10.2%) initiated hemodialysis. Median (IQR) age at HD onset was 12 (5.6-18.7) months compared to 4.6 (0.8-11.7) months at PD onset (p < 0.001). The primary cause of kidney failure with replacement therapy was congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (56.2% of PD versus 39.5% of HD group). Patients on HD had superior growth and nutrition markers than those on PD. Patient survival was similar between the two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

While HD may not be the modality of choice for chronic KRT in younger children, 10% of children younger than 24 months of age receive maintenance HD and the numbers have increased over time. Patient survival on dialysis is similar irrespective of dialysis modality. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

COQ8B glomerular nephropathy: Outcomes after kidney transplantation and analysis of characteristics in Chinese population

BACKGROUND

Mutation in the COQ8B gene can cause COQ8B glomerular nephropathy (COQ8B-GN), which is rare and associated with steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome (SRNS) as well as rapid progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The aim of this study was to analyze the prognosis and recurrence risk of COQ8B-GN in patients after kidney transplantation (KTx) and summarize the characteristics of the Chinese population.

METHODS

A retrospective study included four cases treated in our hospital with a diagnosis of COQ8B-GN. Chinese and foreign studies were searched from database inception to February 2022.

RESULTS

A total of four cases were included, with the age of onset ranging from 4 to 9 years. The initial presentations were SRNS and asymptomatic proteinuria. Only one had an extrarenal manifestation (thyroid cyst). All patients progressed to ESRD at a mean time of 42 months after onset. With a total follow-up time ranging from 12 to 87 months, three of them had received transplantation. While one case needed a second KTx due to graft failure caused by chronic rejection, two recipients had excellent graft function. No recurrence in allograft was observed. There have been 18 cases of KTx recipients reported globally with follow-up information. Except for two cases of graft failure caused by hyperacute rejection and chronic rejection, respectively, the rest all had good graft function without recurrence. In addition, 44 cases of COQ8B-GN in the Chinese population were identified. At the onset, 75% of the patients were aged ≤10 years with initial symptoms of asymptomatic proteinuria, nephrotic syndrome (NS), or SRNS. By the time of literature publication, 59% of patients had progressed to ESRD (mean age of 10.3 ± 3.6 years). The median time from onset to ESRD was 21 months. Renal pathology mainly showed focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), accounting for 61.8% of all biopsies, followed by mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis (20.6%). The first three prevalent mutations in the COQ8B gene among the Chinese population were c. 748G>C, c. 737G>A, and c. 532C>T.

CONCLUSION

COQ8B-GN in the Chinese population may present with asymptomatic proteinuria, NS, or SRNS initially, with most onsets before the age of 10 years. A lot of patients progress to ESRD in early adolescence. FSGS on biopsy and c. 748G>C in the genetic test are the most frequently seen in Chinese COQ8B-GN patients. KTx is feasible for patients with ESRD due to the low risk of recurrence, but we should pay attention to graft rejection.

Growth hormone treatment in the pre-transplant period is associated with superior outcome after pediatric kidney transplantation

BACKGROUND

Recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) is frequently used for treatment of short stature in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) prior to kidney transplantation (KT). To what extent this influences growth and transplant function after KT is yet unknown.

METHODS

Post-transplant growth (height, sitting height, leg length) and clinical parameters of 146 CKD patients undergoing KT before the age of 8 years, from two German pediatric nephrology centers, were prospectively investigated with a mean follow-up of 5.56 years. Outcome in patients with (rhGH group) and without (non-prior rhGH group) prior rhGH treatment was assessed by the use of linear mixed-effects models.

RESULTS

Patients in the rhGH group spent longer time on dialysis and less frequently underwent living related KT compared to the non-prior rhGH group but showed similar height z-scores at the time of KT. After KT, steroid exposure was lower and increments in anthropometric z-scores were significantly higher in the rhGH group compared to those in the non-prior rhGH group, although 18% of patients in the latter group were started on rhGH after KT. Non-prior rhGH treatment was associated with a faster decline in transplant function, lower hemoglobin, and higher C-reactive protein levels (CRP). After adjustment for these confounders, growth outcome did statistically differ for sitting height z-scores only.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with rhGH prior to KT was associated with superior growth outcome in prepubertal kidney transplant recipients, which was related to better transplant function, lower CRP, less anemia, lower steroid exposure, and earlier maturation after KT. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Nutritional Assessment and Management in Paediatric Chronic Kidney Disease

Nutrition in paediatrics has always been one of the most important factors for optimal growth. Children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) need special consideration for better long-term outcomes, including nutritional status, optimal height, and cognitive function. Nonetheless, there are many obstacles to overcome to attain optimal linear growth and nutritional status in children with CKD. This review highlights the need for tools to assess the growth parameters in CKD. In addition, recommendations for dietary intake play a major role in controlling electrolyte disturbances in patients with CKD. For example, it is still unclear whether it is better to restrict phosphate sources in inorganic, organic, or food additives. The review also summarises different factors such as fluid intake, route of feeding, and essential nutrients that require particular attention in paediatric patients with CKD. In summary, a multidisciplinary team is needed to devise individual nutritional plans to achieve the best outcome and improve the quality of life of patients.

Pruritus Features in Children with End-Stage Renal Disease Underwent Dialysis: A Cross-Sectional Study

Objective

Evaluation of the pruritus features in children with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) who underwent dialysis at an academic tertiary pediatric dialysis center.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted at an academic tertiary pediatric dialysis center, Isfahan, Iran. The reviewed medical records of the children included their characteristics, dialysis properties, and laboratory parameters. The 4-item itch questionnaire was utilized to assess distribution, severity, frequency, and associated sleeping disorders.

Results

Thirty ESRD patients with pruritus, including 23 males (76.7%) with a mean age of 11.7 ± 3.64 years, were recruited. The most common cause of CKD was nephronophthisis (23.3%). The median total score of pruritus was 5 (range: 3-15). The distribution score of pruritus was directly correlated with the age (Spearman's rho = 0.42, P = 0.02) and serum level of parathyroid hormone (PTH) (Spearman's rho = 0.42, P = 0.04). In the reduced multiple logistic regression model, the increasing level of serum calcium was associated with increased odds of having total pruritus score ≥ 5 (OR (odds ratio): 4.5; 95% CI 1.12 to 18.05). In addition, an increase in age for one year was found to be associated with 50% higher odds of having total pruritus score ≥ 5 (OR: 1.5; 95% CI 1.03 to 2.18).

Conclusion

Increased level of serum Ca and higher age were associated with increased odds of having more severe pruritus score in children.

Bone Disease in CKD in Children

This manuscript discusses mineral and bone disorders of chronic kidney disease (MBD-CKD) in pediatric patients with special emphasis on the underlying pathophysiology, the causes and clinical profile of growth retardation, the alterations in the growth plate, the strategies to optimize growth and the medical recommendations for prevention and treatment.