Drug Delivery Using Nanoparticles for Cancer Stem-Like Cell Targeting

Increasing the sensitivity and accuracy of detecting exosomes as biomarkers for cancer monitoring using optical nanobiosensors

The advancement of nanoscience and material design in recent times has facilitated the creation of point-of-care devices for cancer diagnosis and biomolecule sensing. Exosomes (EXOs) facilitate the transfer of bioactive molecules between cancer cells and diverse cells in the local and distant microenvironments, thereby contributing to cancer progression and metastasis. Specifically, EXOs derived from cancer are likely to function as biomarkers for early cancer detection due to the genetic or signaling alterations they transport as payload within the cancer cells of origin. It has been verified that EXOs circulate steadily in bodily secretions and contain a variety of information that indicates the progression of the tumor. However, acquiring molecular information and interactions regarding EXOs has presented significant technical challenges due to their nanoscale nature and high heterogeneity. Colorimetry, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), fluorescence, and Raman scattering are examples of optical techniques utilized to quantify cancer exosomal biomarkers, including lipids, proteins, RNA, and DNA. Many optically active nanoparticles (NPs), predominantly carbon-based, inorganic, organic, and composite-based nanomaterials, have been employed in biosensing technology. The exceptional physical properties exhibited by nanomaterials, including carbon NPs, noble metal NPs, and magnetic NPs, have facilitated significant progress in the development of optical nanobiosensors intended for the detection of EXOs originating from tumors. Following a summary of the biogenesis, biological functions, and biomarker value of known EXOs, this article provides an update on the detection methodologies currently under investigation. In conclusion, we propose some potential enhancements to optical biosensors utilized in detecting EXO, utilizing various NP materials such as silicon NPs, graphene oxide (GO), metal NPs, and quantum dots (QDs).

Promising applications of nanotechnology in inhibiting chemo-resistance in solid tumors by targeting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)

The resistance of cancer cells to chemotherapy, also known as chemo-resistance, poses a significant obstacle to cancer treatment and can ultimately result in patient mortality. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is one of the many factors and processes responsible for chemo-resistance. Studies have shown that targeting EMT can help overcome chemo-resistance, and nanotechnology and nanomedicine have emerged as promising approaches to achieve this goal. This article discusses the potential of nanotechnology in inhibiting EMT and proposes a viable strategy to combat chemo-resistance in various solid tumors, including breast cancer, lung cancer, pancreatic cancer, glioblastoma, ovarian cancer, gastric cancer, and hepatocellular carcinoma. While nanotechnology has shown promising results in targeting EMT, further research is necessary to explore its full potential in overcoming chemo-resistance and discovering more effective methods in the future.

The Potential of Nanotechnology to Replace Cancer Stem Cells

Stem cells, which were initially identified in the 1900s, are distinct cells with the potential to replenish themselves as well as differentiate into specialised cells with certain forms and functions. Cancer stem cells play a significant role in the growth and recurrence of the tumours and, similar to normal stem cells, are capable of proliferating and differentiating. Traditional cancer treatments are ineffective against cancer stem cells, which leads to tumour regrowth. Cancer stem cells are thought to emerge as a result of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition pathways. Brain, prostate, pancreatic, blood, ovarian, lung, liver, melanomas, AML, and breast cancer stem cells are among the most prevalent cancer forms. This review aims to comprehend the possibility of using specific forms of nanotechnology to replace cancer stem cells. In terms of nanotechnology, magnetic nanoparticles can deliver medications, especially to the target region without harming healthy cells, and they are biocompatible. In order to kill glioma cancer stem cells, the gold nanoparticles bond with DNA and function as radio sensitizers. In contrast, liposomes can circulate and traverse biological membranes and exhibit high therapeutic efficacy, precise targeting, and better drug release. Similar to carbon nanotubes, grapheme, and grapheme oxide, these substances can be delivered specifically when utilized in photothermal therapy. Recent treatments including signaling pathways and indicators targeted by nanoparticles are being researched. Future research in nanotechnology aims to develop more effective and targeted medicinal approaches. The results of the current investigation also showed that this technology's utilization will improve medical therapy and treatment.

Exosomes in metastasis of colorectal cancers: Friends or foes?

Colorectal cancer (CRC), the third most common type of cancer worldwide, threaten human health and quality of life. With multidisciplinary, including surgery, chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy, patients with an early diagnosis of CRC can have a good prognosis. However, metastasis in CRC patients is the main risk factor causing cancer-related death. To elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms of CRC metastasis is the difficult and research focus on the investigation of the CRC mechanism. On the other hand, the tumor microenvironment (TME) has been confirmed as having an essential role in the tumorigenesis and metastasis of malignancies, including CRCs. Among the different factors in the TME, exosomes as extracellular vesicles, function as bridges in the communication between cancer cells and different components of the TME to promote the progression and metastasis of CRC. MicroRNAs packaged in exosomes can be derived from different sources and transported into the TME to perform oncogenic or tumor-suppressor roles accordingly. This article focuses on CRC exosomes and illustrates their role in regulating the metastasis of CRC, especially through the packaging of miRNAs, to evoke exosomes as novel biomarkers for their impact on the metastasis of CRC progression.

Chitosan Composites Containing Boron-Dipyrromethene Derivatives for Biomedical Applications

The work is devoted to preparing and characterizing the properties of photosensitive composites, based on chitosan proposed for photodynamic therapy. Chitosan films with a 5% addition of two BODIPY dyes were prepared by solution casting. These dyes are dipyrromethene boron derivatives with N-alkyl phthalimide substituent, differing in the presence of iodine atoms in positions 2 and 6 of the BODIPY core. The spectral properties of the obtained materials have been studied by infrared and UV-vis absorption spectroscopy and fluorescence, both in solutions and in a solid state. Surface properties were investigated using the contact angle measurement. The morphology of the sample has been characterized by Scanning Electron and Atomic Force Microscopy. Particular attention was paid to studying the protein absorption and kinetics of the dye release from the chitosan. Adding BODIPY to the chitosan matrix leads to a slight increase in hydrophilicity, higher structure heterogeneity, and roughness, than pure chitosan. The presence of iodine atoms in the BODIPY structure caused the bathochromic effect, but the emission quantum yield decreased in the composites. It has been found that BODIPY-doped chitosan interacts better with human serum albumin and acidic α-glycoprotein than unmodified chitosan. The release rate of dyes from films immersed in methanol depends on the iodine present in the structure.

Innovative nanotheranostics: Smart nanoparticles based approach to overcome breast cancer stem cells mediated chemo- and radioresistances

The alarming increase in the number of breast cancer patients worldwide and the increasing death rate indicate that the traditional and current medicines are insufficient to fight against it. The onset of chemo- and radioresistances and cancer stem cell-based recurrence make this problem harder, and this hour needs a novel treatment approach. Competent nanoparticle-based accurate drug delivery and cancer nanotheranostics like photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, chemodynamic therapy, and sonodynamic therapy can be the key to solving this problem due to their unique characteristics. These innovative formulations can be a better cargo with fewer side effects than the standard chemotherapy and can eliminate the stability problems associated with cancer immunotherapy. The nanotheranostic systems can kill the tumor cells and the resistant breast cancer stem cells by novel mechanisms like local hyperthermia and reactive oxygen species and prevent tumor recurrence. These theranostic systems can also combine with chemotherapy or immunotherapy approaches. These combining approaches can be the future of anticancer therapy, especially to overcome the breast cancer stem cells mediated chemo- and radioresistances. This review paper discusses several novel theranostic systems and smart nanoparticles, their mechanism of action, and their modifications with time. It explains their relevance and market scope in the current era. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Cancer Stem Cells and the Tumor Microenvironment: Targeting the Critical Crosstalk through Nanocarrier Systems

The physiological state of the tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a central role in cancer development due to multiple universal features that transcend heterogeneity and niche specifications, like promoting cancer progression and metastasis. As a result of their preponderant involvement in tumor growth and maintenance through several microsystemic alterations, including hypoxia, oxidative stress, and acidosis, TMEs make for ideal targets in both diagnostic and therapeutic ventures. Correspondingly, methodologies to target TMEs have been investigated this past decade as stratagems of significant potential in the genre of focused cancer treatment. Within targeted oncotherapy, nanomedical derivates-nanocarriers (NCs) especially-have emerged to present notable prospects in enhancing targeting specificity. Yet, one major issue in the application of NCs in microenvironmental directed therapy is that TMEs are too broad a spectrum of targeting possibilities for these carriers to be effectively employed. However, cancer stem cells (CSCs) might portend a solution to the above conundrum: aside from being quite heavily invested in tumorigenesis and therapeutic resistance, CSCs also show self-renewal and fluid clonogenic properties that often define specific TME niches. Further scrutiny of the relationship between CSCs and TMEs also points towards mechanisms that underly tumoral characteristics of metastasis, malignancy, and even resistance. This review summarizes recent advances in NC-enabled targeting of CSCs for more holistic strikes against TMEs and discusses both the current challenges that hinder the clinical application of these strategies as well as the avenues that can further CSC-targeting initiatives. Central role of CSCs in regulation of cellular components within the TME.

A synchronized dual drug delivery molecule targeting cancer stem cells in tumor heterogeneity and metastasis

Cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) represent a key barrier to successful therapy for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). CSCs promote the emergence of chemoresistance, triggering relapse and resulting in a poor prognosis. We herein present CDF-TM, a new small molecule-based binary prodrug conjugated with SN-38 and 3,4-difluorobenzylidene curcumin (CDF) that is specifically activated in hypoxic conditions. CDF-TM treatment significantly induced apoptosis in TNBC-derived 3D spheroids, accompanied with caspase-3 activation as well as the attenuation of tumor stemness with evidence of reduction in aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 (ALDH1) activity and the CD44^high/CD24^low phenotype. An in vivo orthotopic allograft model was used to investigate its effects on tumor growth and metastasis. The dissemination of CSCs from primary allografts was impaired by CDF-TM, along with inhibition of tumor growth via eradication of CSCs and downregulation of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1). This new small molecule-based binary prodrug offers a novel therapeutic option for metastatic TNBC.

Photodynamic therapy of lung cancer, where are we?

Lung cancer remains the leading threat of death globally, killing more people than colon, breast, and prostate cancers combined. Novel lung cancer treatments are being researched because of the ineffectiveness of conventional cancer treatments and the failure of remission. Photodynamic therapy (PDT), a cancer treatment method that is still underutilized, is a sophisticated cancer treatment that shows selective destruction of malignant cells via reactive oxygen species production. PDT has been extensively studied in vitro and clinically. Various PDT strategies have been shown to be effective in the treatment of lung cancer. PDT has been shown in clinical trials to considerably enhance the quality of life and survival in individuals with incurable malignancies. Furthermore, PDT, in conjunction with the use of nanoparticles, is currently being researched for use as an effective cancer treatment, with promising results. PDT and the new avenue of nanoPDT, which are novel treatment options for lung cancer with such promising results, should be tested in clinical trials to determine their efficacy and side effects. In this review, we examine the status and future potentials of nanoPDT in lung cancer treatment.

Cell plasticity, senescence, and quiescence in cancer stem cells: Biological and therapeutic implications

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a distinct population of cells within tumors with capabilities of self-renewal and tumorigenicity. CSCs play a pivotal role in cancer progression, metastasis, and relapse and tumor resistance to cytotoxic therapy. Emerging scientific evidence indicates that CSCs adopt several mechanisms, driven by cellular plasticity, senescence and quiescence, to maintain their self-renewal capability and to resist tumor microenvironmental stress and treatments. These pose major hindrances for CSC-targeting anti-cancer therapies: cell plasticity maintains stemness in CSCs and renders tumor cells to acquire stem-like phenotypes, contributing to tumor heterogeneity and CSC generation; cellular senescence induces genetic reprogramming and stemness activation, leading to CSC-mediated tumor progression and metastasis; cell quienscence facilitates CSC to overcome their intrinsic vulnerabilities and therapeutic stress, inducing tumor relapse and therapy resistance. These mechanisms are subjected to spatiotemporal regulation by hypoxia, CSC niche, and extracellular matrix in the tumor microenvironment. Here we integrate the recent advances and current knowledge to elucidate the mechanisms involved in the regulation of plasticity, senescence and quiescence of CSCs and the potential therapeutic implications for the future.

The Promise of CAR T-Cell Therapy for the treatment of cancer stem cells: A Short Review

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is a type of sophisticated tailored immunotherapy used to treat a variety of tumors. Immunotherapy works by utilizing the body's own immune system to discover and destroy malignant cells. In CAR-T therapy, a patient's own immune cells are genetically engineered to recognize and attack cancer. Treatments employing CAR T-cells are currently showing promising therapeutic results in patients with hematologic malignancies, and their safety and feasibility in solid tumors has been verified. In this review, we will discuss in detail the likelihood that CAR T-cells inhibit cancer stem cells (CSCs) by selectively targeting their cell surface markers will ultimately improve the therapeutic response for patients with various forms of cancer. This review addresses the major components of cancer stem cell (CSC)-targeted CAR T-cells against malignancies, from bench to bedside.

Dissecting Tumor Growth: The Role of Cancer Stem Cells in Drug Resistance and Recurrence

Simple Summary

Cancer is one of the most debated problems all over the world. Cancer stem cells are considered responsible of tumor initiation, metastasis, drug resistance, and recurrence. This subpopulation of cells has been found into the tumor bulk and showed the capacity to self-renew, differentiate, up to generate a new tumor. In the last decades, several studies have been set on the molecular mechanisms behind their specific characteristics as the Wnt/β-catenin signaling, Notch signaling, Hedgehog signaling, transcription factors, etc. The most powerful part of CSCs is represented by the niches as “promoter” of their self-renewal and “protector” from the common oncological treatment as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. In our review article we highlighted the primary mechanisms involved in CSC tumorigenesis for the setting of further targets to control the metastatic process.

Abstract

Emerging evidence suggests that a small subpopulation of cancer stem cells (CSCs) is responsible for initiation, progression, and metastasis cascade in tumors. CSCs share characteristics with normal stem cells, i.e., self-renewal and differentiation potential, suggesting that they can drive cancer progression. Consequently, targeting CSCs to prevent tumor growth or regrowth might offer a chance to lead the fight against cancer. CSCs create their niche, a specific area within tissue with a unique microenvironment that sustains their vital functions. Interactions between CSCs and their niches play a critical role in regulating CSCs’ self-renewal and tumorigenesis. Differences observed in the frequency of CSCs, due to the phenotypic plasticity of many cancer cells, remain a challenge in cancer therapeutics, since CSCs can modulate their transcriptional activities into a more stem-like state to protect themselves from destruction. This plasticity represents an essential step for future therapeutic approaches. Regarding self-renewal, CSCs are modulated by the same molecular pathways found in normal stem cells, such as Wnt/β-catenin signaling, Notch signaling, and Hedgehog signaling. Another key characteristic of CSCs is their resistance to standard chemotherapy and radiotherapy treatments, due to their capacity to rest in a quiescent state. This review will analyze the primary mechanisms involved in CSC tumorigenesis, with particular attention to the roles of CSCs in tumor progression in benign and malignant diseases; and will examine future perspectives on the identification of new markers to better control tumorigenesis, as well as dissecting the metastasis process.

Cancer stem cells and strategies for targeted drug delivery

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a small proportion of cancer cells with high tumorigenic activity, self-renewal ability, and multilineage differentiation potential. Standard anti-tumor therapies including conventional chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and molecularly targeted therapies are not effective against CSCs, and often lead to enrichment of CSCs that can result in tumor relapse. Therefore, it is hypothesized that targeting CSCs is key to increasing the efficacy of cancer therapies. In this review, CSC properties including CSC markers, their role in tumor growth, invasiveness, metastasis, and drug resistance, as well as CSC microenvironment are discussed. Further, CSC-targeted strategies including the use of targeted drug delivery systems are examined.

Nanotechnology to the Rescue: Treatment Perspective for the Immune Dysregulation Observed in COVID-19

The study of the use of nanotechnology for drug delivery has been extensive. Nanomedical approaches for therapeutics; drug delivery in particular is superior to conventional methods in that it allows for controlled targeted delivery and release, higher stability, extended circulation time, minimal side-effects, and improved pharmacokinetic clearance (of the drug) form the body, to name a few. The magnitude of COVID-19, the current ongoing pandemic has been severe; it has caused widespread the loss of human life. In individuals with severe COVID-19, immune dysregulation and a rampant state of hyperinflammation is observed. This kind of an immunopathological response is detrimental and results in rapid disease progression, development of secondary infections, sepsis and can be fatal. Several studies have pin-pointed the reason for this immune dysregulation; deviations in the signaling pathways involved in the mediation and control of immune responses. In severe COVID-19 patients, many signaling cascades including JAK/STAT, NF-κB, MAPK/ERK, TGF beta, VEGF, and Notch signaling were found to be either upregulated or inactivated. Targeting these aberrant signaling pathways in conjunction with antiviral therapy will effectuate mitigation of the hyperinflammation, hypercytokinemia, and promote faster recovery. The science of the use of nanocarriers as delivery agents to modulate these signaling pathways is not new; it has already been explored for other inflammatory diseases and in particular, cancer therapy. Numerous studies have evaluated the efficacy and potential of nanomedical approaches to modulate these signaling pathways and have been met with positive results. A treatment regime, that includes nanotherapeutics and antiviral therapies will prove effective and holds great promise for the successful treatment of COVID-19. In this article, we review different nanomedical approaches already studied for targeting aberrant signaling pathways, the host immune response to SARS-CoV-2, immunopathology and the dysregulated signaling pathways observed in severe COVID-19 and the current treatment methods in use for targeting signaling cascades in COVID-19. We then conclude by suggesting that the use of nanomedical drug delivery systems for targeting signaling pathways can be extended to effectively target the aberrant signaling pathways in COVID-19 for best treatment results.

Nanoliposomal Cercodemasoide A and Its Improved Activities Against NTERA-2 Cancer Stem Cells

Recently, saponins derived from marine sources have received much attention because of their promising bioactivities, such as anticancer, anti-angiogenesis, and anti-inflammation. In particular, a triterpene saponin from the sea cucumber Cercodemas anceps Selenka, cercodemasoide A (CAN1), showed potent cytotoxicity against various cancer cell lines. Recent evidence has indicated that cancer stem cells (CSCs) could be a novel target for efficient cancer therapies. In order to improve the biopharmaceutical properties of CAN1, the compound was loaded into nanoliposomes as an ideal drug carrier. CAN1 was successfully incorporated into nanoliposomes as small unilamellar liposome vesicles with an average size of 73.39 ± 1.57 nm, zeta potential of −0.299 ± 0.046 mV, polydispersity index of 0.336 ± 0.038, and with an encapsulation efficiency of up to 62.9%. For the first time, CAN1 and its nanoliposomal forms have been shown to have a promising cytotoxic activity against NTERA-2 CSCs, with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) =1.03 ± 0.04 and 0.41 ± 0.03 µM, respectively. The CAN1 nanoliposomes also presented significantly improved activities in suppressing the growth of NTERA-2 3-dimensional tumorspheres (IC50 = 1.71 ± 0.06 µM) in comparison with the free form ( P < .05). The anti-CSC effects of CAN1 nanoliposomes on NTERA-2 cells were due to their apoptotic induction through enhancing caspase-3 activity (more than 2-fold) and arresting the cell cycle at the S phase ( P < .05). The obtained CAN1-encapsulated nanoliposomes suggest valuable applications in CSC-targeting treatment for more efficient clinical therapy.

Epigenetics in Breast Cancer Therapy-New Strategies and Future Nanomedicine Perspectives

Epigenetic dysregulation has been recognized as a critical factor contributing to the development of resistance against standard chemotherapy and to breast cancer progression via epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Although the efficacy of the first-generation epigenetic drugs (epi-drugs) in solid tumor management has been disappointing, there is an increasing body of evidence showing that epigenome modulation, in synergy with other therapeutic approaches, could play an important role in cancer treatment, reversing acquired therapy resistance. However, the epigenetic therapy of solid malignancies is not straightforward. The emergence of nanotechnologies applied to medicine has brought new opportunities to advance the targeted delivery of epi-drugs while improving their stability and solubility, and minimizing off-target effects. Furthermore, the omics technologies, as powerful molecular epidemiology screening tools, enable new diagnostic and prognostic epigenetic biomarker identification, allowing for patient stratification and tailored management. In combination with new-generation epi-drugs, nanomedicine can help to overcome low therapeutic efficacy in treatment-resistant tumors. This review provides an overview of ongoing clinical trials focusing on combination therapies employing epi-drugs for breast cancer treatment and summarizes the latest nano-based targeted delivery approaches for epi-drugs. Moreover, it highlights the current limitations and obstacles associated with applying these experimental strategies in the clinics.

Drug Delivery Systems Using Surface Markers for Targeting Cancer Stem Cells

The innate abilities of cancer stem cells (CSCs), such as multi-drug resistance, drug efflux, quiescence and ionizing radiation tolerance, protect them from most traditional chemotherapeutics. As a result, this small subpopulation of persistent cells leads to more aggressive and chemoresistant cancers, causing tumour relapse and metastasis. This subpopulation is differentiated from the bulk tumour population through a wide variety of surface markers expressed on the cell surface. Recent developments in nanomedicine and targeting delivery methods have given rise to new possibilities for specifically targeting these markers and preferentially eliminating CSCs. Herein, we first summarize the range of surface markers identifying CSC populations in a variety of cancers; then, we discuss recent attempts to actively target CSCs and their niches using liposomal, nanoparticle, carbon nanotube and viral formulations.

Eradicating the Roots: Advanced Therapeutic Approaches Targeting Breast Cancer Stem Cells

Accumulating evidences have demonstrated that the existence of breast cancer-initiating cells, which drives the original tumorigenicity, local invasion and migration propensity of breast cancer. These cells, termed as breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs), possess properties including self-renewal, multidirectional differentiation and proliferative potential, and are believed to play important roles in the intrinsic drug resistance of breast cancer. One of the reasons why BCBCs cause difficulties in breast cancer treating is that BCBCs can control both genetic and non-genetic elements to keep their niches safe and sound, which allows BCSCs for constant self-renewal and differentiation. Therapeutic strategies designed to target BCSCs may ultimately result in effective interventions for the treatment of breast cancer. Novel strategies including nanomedicine, oncolytic virus therapy, immunotherapy and induced differentiation therapy are emerging and proved to be efficient in anti-BCSCs therapy. In this review, we summarized breast tumor biology and the current challenges of breast cancer therapies, focused on breast cancer stem cells, and introduced promising therapeutic strategies targeting BCSCs.

Novel dendritic polyglycerol-conjugated, mesoporous silica-based targeting nanocarriers for co-delivery of doxorubicin and tariquidar to overcome multidrug resistance in breast cancer stem cells

Multidrug resistance (MDR) of cancer stem cells (CSCs) is a major hurdle to chemotherapy, and it is very important to develop CSCs-specific targeted nanocarriers for the treatment of drug resistant CSCs. In this work, we developed CSCs-specific targeted mSiO₂-dPG nanocarriers simultaneous delivery chemotherapy drug DOX along with the P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitor tariquidar (Tar) for enhanced chemotherapy to overcome MDR in breast CSCs. The mSiO₂-dPG nanocarriers possess a high loading capability, excellent pH stimuli-responsive performance, and good biocompatibility. With the help of CSCs-specific targeting and P-gp inhibitor Tar, the accumulation of DOX delivered by the mSiO₂-dPG nanocarriers could be greatly increased in drug resistant three-dimensional mammosphere of breast CSCs, and the chemotherapeutic efficacy against breast CSCs was enhanced. Moreover, the expression of stemness-associated gene and tumorspheres' formation ability was also significantly suppressed, which indicates the excellent capability for overcoming MDR of breast CSCs. Taken together, we developed a CSCs-specific targeted mSiO₂-dPG nanocarriers for co-delivery DOX and Tar, which provide a promising approach to effectively eliminate the CSCs and overcome the MDR of breast CSCs.

A review of nanotechnology-based approaches for breast cancer and triple-negative breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most prevalent cancers in women. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) in which the three major receptors i.e. estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR) and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), are absent is known to express the most aggressive phenotype and increased metastasis which results in the development of resistance to chemotherapy. It offers various therapeutic advantages in treating BC and TNBC. Nanotechnology offers various unique characteristics such as small size (nanometric), active and passive targeting, and the ability to attach multiple targeting moieties, controlled release, and site-specific targeting. This review focuses on conventional drug therapies, recent treatment strategies, and unique therapeutic approaches available for BC and TNBC. The role of breast cancer stem cells in the recurrence of BC and TNBC has also been highlighted. Several chemotherapeutic agents delivered using nanocarriers such as polymeric nanoparticles/micelles, metallic/inorganic NPs, and lipid-based NPs (Liposome, solid-lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs)), etc. with excellent responses in the treatment of BC/TNBC along with breast cancer stem cells have been discussed in details. Moreover, the application of nanomedicine including CRISPR nanoparticle, exosomes for the treatment of BC/TNBC and other molecular targets available such as poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), etc. for further exploration have also been discussed.

Emerging nanomedicine-based strategies for preventing metastasis of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is highly metastatic with very short survival and increasing mortality rates. Recent advances in therapeutic regimes and other adjuvant therapies improved slightly overall survival of pancreatic cancer, but fighting metastasis has been challenging and is necessary for achieving cure. Nanomedicine, not limited to drug delivery, offers opportunities for targeting cancer metastasis. Research regarding the prevention of metastasis of this malignancy is highly demanded. Herein, we focus on advances of nanomedicine-based strategies for targeting different stages of metastasis, including cancer stem cells, tumor microenvironment, circulating tumor cells and tumor exosomes. A greater emphasis on targeting metastasis of pancreatic cancer using nanomedicine-based strategies provides avenues for improving pancreatic cancer treatment outcomes in the future.

Cancer stem cells and nanotechnological approaches for eradication

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are currently known as the main cause of tumor recurrence. After chemotherapy is completed, CSCs proliferate and then differentiate to generate new tumor tissues. Similar to normal stem cells, this non-uniformly distributed cell population in the tumor tissue has self-renewal capacity and is responsible for survival of the tumor and difference in its genetic and metabolic characteristics. Followed by gene instability in CSCs, new phenotypic markers are aberrantly expressed in CSCs subpopulation. Hence, some of the surface markers and metabolic pathways that are upregulated in CSCs may be applied as specific targets for development of diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. In this review article, the distinctive properties of CSCs including signal pathways implicated in self-renewal and surface markers were discussed. Moreover, targeting CSCs based on their specific properties using nanodrugs was reviewed.

Cancer Stem Cells: Powerful Targets to Improve Current Anticancer Therapeutics

A frequent observation in several malignancies is the development of resistance to therapy that results in frequent tumor relapse and metastasis. Much of the tumor resistance phenotype comes from its heterogeneity that halts the ability of therapeutic agents to eliminate all cancer cells effectively. Tumor heterogeneity is, in part, controlled by cancer stem cells (CSC). CSC may be considered the reservoir of cancer cells as they exhibit properties of self-renewal and plasticity and the capability of reestablishing a heterogeneous tumor cell population. The endowed resistance mechanisms of CSC are mainly attributed to several factors including cellular quiescence, accumulation of ABC transporters, disruption of apoptosis, epigenetic reprogramming, and metabolism. There is a current need to develop new therapeutic drugs capable of targeting CSC to overcome tumor resistance. Emerging in vitro and in vivo studies strongly support the potential benefits of combination therapies capable of targeting cancer stem cell-targeting agents. Clinical trials are still underway to address the pharmacokinetics, safety, and efficacy of combination treatment. This review will address the main characteristics, therapeutic implications, and perspectives of targeting CSC to improve current anticancer therapeutics.

Application of Nanotechnology in Targeting of Cancer Stem Cells: A Review

Cancer is increasingly apparent as a systems-level, network happening. The central tendency of malignant alteration can be described as a two-phase procedure, where an initial increase of network plasticity is followed by reducing plasticity at late stages of tumor improvement. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are cancer cells that take characteristics associated with normal stem cells. Cancer therapy has been based on the concept that most of the cancer cells have a similar ability to separate metastasise and kill the host. In this review, we addressed the use of nanotechnology in the treatment of cancer stem cells.

Exosomes: composition, biogenesis, and mechanisms in cancer metastasis and drug resistance

Tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs) participate in formation and progression of different cancer processes, including tumor microenvironment (TME) remodeling, angiogenesis, invasion, metastasis and drug-resistance. Exosomes initiate or suppress various signaling pathways in the recipient cells via transmitting heterogeneous cargoes. In this review we discuss exosome biogenesis, exosome mediated metastasis and chemoresistance. Furthermore, tumor derived exosomes role in tumor microenvironment remodeling, and angiogenesis is reviewed. Also, exosome induction of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) is highlighted. More importantly, we discuss extensively how exosomes regulate drug resistance in several cancers. Thus, understanding exosome biogenesis, their contents and the molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways that are responsible for metastasis and drug-resistance mediated by TDEs may help to devise novel therapeutic approaches for cancer progression particularly to overcome therapy-resistance and preventing metastasis as major factors of cancer mortality.

A review of small molecules and drug delivery applications using gold and iron nanoparticles

Conventional cancer treatment techniques show several limitations including low or no specificity and consequently a low efficacy in discriminating between cancer cells and healthy cells. Recent nanotechnology developments have introduced smart and novel therapeutic nanomaterials that take advantage of various targeting approaches. The use of nanotechnology in medicine and, more specifically, drug delivery is set to spread even more rapidly than it has over the past two decades. Currently, many nanoparticles (NPs) are under investigation for drug delivery including those for cancer therapy. Targeted nanomaterials bind selectively to cancer cells and greatly affect them with only a minor effect on healthy cells. Gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs), specifically, have been identified as significant candidates for new cancer therapeutic modalities because of their biocompatibility, easy functionalization and fabrication, optical tunable characteristics, and chemophysical stability. In the last decade, there has been significant research on Au-NPs and their biomedical applications. Functionalized Au-NPs represent highly attractive and promising candidates for drug delivery, owing to their unique dimensions, tunable surface functionalities, and controllable drug release. Further, iron oxide NPs due to their "superparamagnetic" properties have been studied and have demonstrated successful employment in numerous applications. In targeted drug delivery systems, drug-loaded iron oxide NPs can accumulate at the tumor site with the aid of an external magnetic field. This can lead to incremental effectiveness in drug release to the tumor site and vanquish cancer cells without harming healthy cells. In order for the application of iron oxide NPs in the human body to be realized, they should be biodegradable and biocompatible to minimize toxicity. This review illustrates recent advances in the field drug and small molecule delivery such as fluorouracil, folic acid, doxorubicin, paclitaxel, and daunorubicin, specifically when using gold and iron oxide NPs as carriers of anticancer therapeutic agents.

Tracking iron oxide labelled mesenchymal stem cells(MSCs) using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a rat model of hepatic cirrhosis

Homing and tumor attenuation potential of BM-MSCs labelled with superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) in a rat model of hepatic cirrhosis was evaluated. Rat BM-MSCs were derived, characterized and labelled with SPIONs (200 nm; 25 mg Fe/ml). Hepatic cirrhosis was induced in Wistar rats (n=30; 10/group) with carbon tetrachloride (CCl4; 0.3 mL/kg body weight) injected twice a week for 12 weeks. Group-I was administered vehicle (castor-oil) alone; Group-II received two doses of unlabelled BM-MSCs (3x106 cells) and Group-III received two doses of SPIONs labelled BM-MSCs (3x106 cells) via tail vein injection (0.5 ml) at weekly intervals. All animals were sacrificed after two weeks for histological, radiological and biochemical analysis. Derived BM-MSCs demonstrated MSCs related CD markers. Histology confirmed induction of hepatic cirrhosis with CCL4. Levels of alanine-aminotransferase, aspartate-aminotransferase,alkaline-phosphatase and gamma glutamyl-transferase returned to normal levels following treatment with BM-MSCs. Uptake and homing of SPIONs labelled BM-MSCs, and reduction in the size of cirrhotic nodules were confirmed using transmission electron microscopy and magnetic resonance imaging respectively. BM-MSCs reduced the pathological effects of CCL4 induced hepatic cirrhosis and labelling BMMSCs with SPIONs were non-toxic and enabled efficient tracking using non-invasive methods.

Exosomes, Their Biogenesis and Role in Inter-Cellular Communication, Tumor Microenvironment and Cancer Immunotherapy

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles ranging from 30 to 150 nm in diameter that contain molecular constituents of their host cells. They are released from different types of cells ranging from immune to tumor cells and play an important role in intercellular communication. Exosomes can be manipulated by altering their host cells and can be loaded with products of interest such as specific drugs, proteins, DNA and RNA species. Due to their small size and the unique composition of their lipid bilayer, exosomes are capable of reaching different cell types where they alter the pathophysiological conditions of the recipient cells. There is growing evidence that exosomes are used as vehicles that can modulate the immune system and play an important role in cancer progression. The cross communication between the tumors and the cells of the immune system has gained attention in various immunotherapeutic approaches for several cancer types. In this review, we discuss the exosome biogenesis, their role in inter-cellular communication, and their capacity to modulate the immune system as a part of future cancer immunotherapeutic approaches and their potential to serve as biomarkers of therapy response.

Loading Lovastatin into Camptothecin-Floxuridine Conjugate Nanocapsules for Enhancing Anti-metastatic Efficacy of Cocktail Chemotherapy on Triple-negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a malignant and refractory disease with high morbidity and mortality. The TNBC shows no response to hormonal therapy nor targeted therapy due to the lack of known targetable biomarkers. Furthermore, the TNBC also exhibits a high degree of heterogeneity that leads to cancer evolution, drug resistance, metastatic progression, and recurrence, arising from the tumor-initiating properties of cancer stem cells (CSCs). Thus, the development of radical therapeutic regimens with high efficacy and limited side effects is crucial. In this study, we designed an innovative ternary cocktail chemotherapy by using Lovastatin (L)-loaded Janus camptothecin-floxuridine conjugate (CF) nanocapsules (NCs) with ultrahigh drug loading capacity. The obtained LCF NCs were shown to be able to suppress growth of TNBC, including inhibition of growth and metastasis of CSCs, both in vitro and in tumor-bearing mice. Moreover, in animal experiments, the LCF NCs showed sustained and synchronous drug release (half-life > 300 min), 85.2% reduction in pulmonary metastases, and no cancer recurrence during one-month observation post-treatment. Thus, this innovative LCF NC design provides a simple and synergistic strategy for the development of simultaneous triple chemotherapy and could be an efficacious, safe, and amenable choice with higher therapeutic relevance and fewer toxic complications than conventional multidrug delivery systems for TNBC treatment in the future.

pH- and GSH-Sensitive Hyaluronic Acid-MP Conjugate Micelles for Intracellular Delivery of Doxorubicin to Colon Cancer Cells and Cancer Stem Cells

A dual-sensitive polymeric drug conjugate (HA-SS-MP) was synthesized by conjugating hydrophobic 6-mercaptopurine (MP) to thiolated hyaluronic acid (HA) as the carrier and ligand to deliver doxorubicin (Dox) to parental colon cancer and colon cancer stem cells. Because of the amphiphilic nature of HA-SS-MP, it was self-assembled in the aqueous media, and Dox was physically encapsulated in the core of the micelles. The particle size and the zeta potential of the micelle were analyzed by dynamic light scattering (DLS), and the morphology of the micelle was investigated using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Drug release study results revealed more drug release at pH 5.0 in the presence of GSH than that at the physiological pH value. The cytotoxicity of free Dox was slightly greater than that of Dox-loaded HA-SS-MP micelles. In vitro cytotoxicity of HA-SS-MP and Dox-loaded HA-SS-MP micelles was greater for cancer stem cells (HCT116-CSCs) than for parental HCT116 colon cancer cells and L929 normal fibroblast cells. The MTT and flow cytometry results confirmed that free HA competitively inhibited Dox-loaded HA-SS-MP uptake. Similarly, flow cytometry results revealed anti-CD44 antibody competitively inhibited cellular uptake of Rhodamine B isothiocyanate conjugated micelles, which confirms that the synthesized micelle is uptaken via CD44 receptor. Cell cycle analysis revealed that free drugs and Dox-loaded HA-SS-MP arrested parental HCT116 colon cancer cells at the S phase, while cell arrest was observed at the G0G1 phase in HCT116-CSCs. In addition, ex vivo biodistribution study showed that Dox-loaded HA-SS-MP micelles were accumulated more in the tumor region than in any other organ. Furthermore, the in vivo results revealed that Dox-loaded HA-SS-MP micelles exhibited more therapeutic efficacy than the free drugs in inhibiting tumor growth in BALB/C nude mice. Overall, the results suggested that the synthesized micelles could be promising as a stimuli carrier and ligand for delivering Dox to colon cancer cells and also to eradicate colon cancer stem cells.

miRNA122a regulation of gene therapy vectors targeting hepatocellular cancer stem cells

In this study, we report a miRNA122a based targeted gene therapy for hepatocellular cancer stem cells (CSCs). First, we assessed the levels of miRNA122a in normal human hepatocytes, a panel of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines and hepatocellular CSCs observing its significant downregulation in HCC and CSCs. The miRNA122a binding site was then incorporated at the 3'-UTR of reporter genes gaussia luciferase (GLuc) and eGFP which resulted in significant hepatocyte detargeting. Using this strategy for the delivery of gene directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT) utilizing the cytosine deaminase/5-fluorocytosine (CD/5-FC) system, we showed significant killing in cells with low or no miRNA122a while those cells, such as hepatocytes with high miRNA122a were largely spared. Next, we showed that CSC enriched tumorspheres exhibit a significant downregulation of miRNA122a expression providing a rational to exploit its binding site for targeted gene delivery. Using plasmids harboring reporters GLuc and eGFP with or without miR122a binding sites, we showed high reporter expression in the CSCs and little reported expression in the non-enriched cultures. Finally, we demonstrate the efficacy of miRNA122a based post-transcriptionally targeted GDEPT for hepatocellular CSCs.

Significant Suppression of Non-small-cell Lung Cancer by Hydrophobic Poly(ester amide) Nanoparticles with High Docetaxel Loading

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for over 85% of clinical lung cancer cases, which is the leading cause of cancer-related death. To develop new therapeutic strategy for NSCLC, a library of L-phenylalanine-based poly(ester amide) (Phe-PEA) polymers was synthesized and assembled with docetaxel (Dtxl) to form Dtxl-loaded Phe-PEA nanoparticles (NPs). The hydrophobic Phe-PEA polymers were able to form NPs by nanoprecipitation method and the characterization results showed that the screened Dtxl-8P4 NPs have small particle size (∼100 nm) and high Dtxl loading (∼20 wt%). In vitro experiments showed that Dtxl-8P4 NPs were rapidly trafficked into cancer cells, then effectively escaped from lysosomal degradation and achieved significant tumor cell inhibition. In vivo results demonstrated that Dtxl-8P4 NPs with prolonged blood circulation could efficiently deliver Dtxl to A549 tumor sites, leading to reduced cell proliferation, block metastasis, and increase apoptosis, then persistent inhibition of tumor growth. Therefore, Phe-PEA NPs are able to load high amount of hydrophobic drugs and could be a promising therapeutic approach for NSCLC and other cancer treatments.

Betaine promotes lipid accumulation in adipogenic-differentiated skeletal muscle cells through ERK/PPARγ signalling pathway

Betaine, a neutral zwitterionic compound, could regulate intramuscular fat (IMF) deposition and meat quality. However, the efficacy is controversial. Moreover, the regulatory mechanism of betaine on lipid metabolism in skeletal muscle cells remains unclear. Therefore, in this study, we examined the effects and regulatory mechanism of betaine on lipid accumulation in adipogenic-differentiated C2C12 cells. We found that adipogenic-induced C2C12 cells treated with 10 mM betaine for 24 and 48 h had more lipid accumulation than the control group. Real-time PCR and Western blot results revealed that betaine treatment did not alter the expression of lipolysis and lipid oxidation-related genes, but dramatically increased the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and its target genes such as fatty acid binding protein 4 (aP2), fatty acid synthase (FAS) and lipoprteinlipase (LPL). Furthermore, betaine combined with PPARγ inhibitor GW9662 treatment showed that betaine elevated C2C12 lipid accumulation through upregulation of PPARγ. Mechanistically, we found that betaine promoted PPARγ expression and lipid accumulation through inhibition of extracellular regulated protein kinases1/2 (ERK1/2) signalling pathway. These results demonstrate that betaine acts through ERK1/2-PPARγ signalling pathway to regulate lipid metabolism in adipogenic-differentiated skeletal muscle cells, which could provide some useful information for controlling muscle lipid accumulation by manipulating ERK1/2 and PPARγ signalling pathway.

Targeting murine leukemic stem cells by antibody functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles

Acute leukemia is initiated and maintained by leukemia stem cells (LSCs) and therefore there is great interest to develop innovative therapeutic approaches which target LSCs. Here we show that mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) functionalized with succinic anhydride, tagged with an anti-B220 antibody and loaded with the anthracycline daunorubicin are efficiently incorporated into murine B220-positive AML LSCs and preferentially kill these cells in comparison to B220-negative AML LSCs in vitro. Furthermore, short – term treatment of the AML LSCs with these MSNs before transplant significantly delayed leukemia development in recipient mice. These data demonstrate that targeting of AML LSCs can be improved by using functionalized and antigen directed MSNs as carriers for anti-leukemic drugs.

WITHDRAWN: Titanium dioxide nanoparticles induce human eosinophil adhesion onto endothelial EA.hy926 cells via activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt cell signalling pathway

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Targeting Strategies for the Combination Treatment of Cancer Using Drug Delivery Systems

Cancer cells have characteristics of acquired and intrinsic resistances to chemotherapy treatment-due to the hostile tumor microenvironment-that create a significant challenge for effective therapeutic regimens. Multidrug resistance, collateral toxicity to normal cells, and detrimental systemic side effects present significant obstacles, necessitating alternative and safer treatment strategies. Traditional administration of chemotherapeutics has demonstrated minimal success due to the non-specificity of action, uptake and rapid clearance by the immune system, and subsequent metabolic alteration and poor tumor penetration. Nanomedicine can provide a more effective approach to targeting cancer by focusing on the vascular, tissue, and cellular characteristics that are unique to solid tumors. Targeted methods of treatment using nanoparticles can decrease the likelihood of resistant clonal populations of cancerous cells. Dual encapsulation of chemotherapeutic drug allows simultaneous targeting of more than one characteristic of the tumor. Several first-generation, non-targeted nanomedicines have received clinical approval starting with Doxil® in 1995. However, more than two decades later, second-generation or targeted nanomedicines have yet to be approved for treatment despite promising results in pre-clinical studies. This review highlights recent studies using targeted nanoparticles for cancer treatment focusing on approaches that target either the tumor vasculature (referred to as 'vascular targeting'), the tumor microenvironment ('tissue targeting') or the individual cancer cells ('cellular targeting'). Recent studies combining these different targeting methods are also discussed in this review. Finally, this review summarizes some of the reasons for the lack of clinical success in the field of targeted nanomedicines.

Nanoparticles as Theranostic Vehicles in Experimental and Clinical Applications-Focus on Prostate and Breast Cancer

Prostate and breast cancer are the second most and most commonly diagnosed cancer in men and women worldwide, respectively. The American Cancer Society estimates that during 2016 in the USA around 430,000 individuals were diagnosed with one of these two types of cancers, and approximately 15% of them will die from the disease. In Europe, the rate of incidences and deaths are similar to those in the USA. Several different more or less successful diagnostic and therapeutic approaches have been developed and evaluated in order to tackle this issue and thereby decrease the death rates. By using nanoparticles as vehicles carrying both diagnostic and therapeutic molecular entities, individualized targeted theranostic nanomedicine has emerged as a promising option to increase the sensitivity and the specificity during diagnosis, as well as the likelihood of survival or prolonged survival after therapy. This article presents and discusses important and promising different kinds of nanoparticles, as well as imaging and therapy options, suitable for theranostic applications. The presentation of different nanoparticles and theranostic applications is quite general, but there is a special focus on prostate cancer. Some references and aspects regarding breast cancer are however also presented and discussed. Finally, the prostate cancer case is presented in more detail regarding diagnosis, staging, recurrence, metastases, and treatment options available today, followed by possible ways to move forward applying theranostics for both prostate and breast cancer based on promising experiments performed until today.

Drug-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles for Cancer Stem Cell Targeting

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) have been reported to play critical roles in tumor initiation, propagation, and regeneration of cancer. Nano-size vehicles are employed to deliver drugs to target the CSCs for cancer therapy. Polymeric nanoparticles have been considered as the most efficient vehicles for drug delivery due to their excellent pharmacokinetic properties. The CSCs specific antibodies or ligands can be conjugated onto the surface or interior of nanoparticles to successfully target and finally eliminate CSCs. In this review, we focus on the approaches of polymeric nanoparticles design for loading drug, and their potential application for CSCs targeting in cancer therapy.

Circulating Tumor Cells: From Theory to Nanotechnology-Based Detection

Cancer stem cells with stem-cell properties are regarded as tumor initiating cells. Sharing stem-cell properties, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are responsible for the development of metastasis, which significant affects CTC analysis in clinical practice. Due to their extremely low occurrence in blood, however, it is challenging to enumerate and analyze CTCs. Nanotechnology is able to address the problems of insufficient capture efficiency and low purity of CTCs owing to the unique structural and functional properties of nanomaterials, showing strong promise for CTC isolation and detection. In this review, we discuss the role of stem-like CTCs in metastases, provide insight into recent progress in CTC isolation and detection approaches using various nanoplatforms, and highlight the role of nanotechnology in the advancement of CTC research.

The evolving concept of liver cancer stem cells

Liver cancer is an often fatal malignant tumor with a high recurrence rate and chemoresistance. The major malignant phenotypes of cancer, including recurrence, metastasis, and chemoresistance, are related to the presence of cancer stem cells (CSCs). In the past few decades, CSCs have been identified and characterized in many tumors including liver cancer. Accumulated evidence has revealed many aspects of the biological behavior of liver CSCs and the mechanism of their regulation. Based on these findings, a number of studies have investigated eradication of liver CSCs. This review focuses on the recent advances in our understanding of the biology of liver CSCs and the development of strategies for their treatment.

Exosome-Based Cancer Therapy: Implication for Targeting Cancer Stem Cells

Drug resistance, difficulty in specific targeting and self-renewal properties of cancer stem cells (CSCs) all contribute to cancer treatment failure and relapse. CSCs have been suggested as both the seeds of the primary cancer, and the roots of chemo- and radio-therapy resistance. The ability to precisely deliver drugs to target CSCs is an urgent need for cancer therapy, with nanotechnology-based drug delivery system being one of the most promising tools to achieve this in the clinic. Exosomes are cell-derived natural nanometric vesicles that are widely distributed in body fluids and involved in multiple disease processes, including tumorigenesis. Exosome-based nanometric vehicles have a number of advantages: they are non-toxic, non-immunogenic, and can be engineered to have robust delivery capacity and targeting specificity. This enables exosomes as a powerful nanocarrier to deliver anti-cancer drugs and genes for CSC targeting therapy. Here, we will introduce the current explorations of exosome-based delivery system in cancer therapy, with particular focus on several exosomal engineering approaches that have improved their efficiency and specificity for CSC targeting.