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Sakalidis KE, Pérez-Tejero J, Khudair M, Hettinga FJ. Ball possessions and game rhythm in basketball games involving players with and without intellectual impairments. JOURNAL OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY RESEARCH : JIDR 2024; 68:23-33. [PMID: 37654006 DOI: 10.1111/jir.13083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ball possessions and game rhythm are promising variables to better understand teams' collective behaviour during a basketball game. However, the role of these variables is not well documented in teams with intellectual impairments (II). This study aimed to explore ball possession and game rhythm differences between II and non-II basketball games. METHODS Data were obtained through video observations (53 II games) and the International Basketball Federation records (53 non-II games). RESULTS Independent t-tests (P ≤ 0.05) revealed that the number of ball possessions was higher and game rhythm was faster in II games. Two-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (P ≤ 0.05) showed that ball possessions and game rhythm developed differently throughout the II games compared with the non-II games. CONCLUSIONS The differences may be due to the decision-making, tactical and self-regulatory limitations of players with II. These limitations adequately explain why players with II respond differently to the environmental cues and monitor insufficiently their actions compared with players without II. Additionally, the higher number of ball possessions and the faster game rhythm in II games could be an indicator of more intuitive, and thus faster, game-related decision-making. In conclusion, the study provides further understanding of the role of cognition in basketball and contributes to better explain the differences between II and non-II games.
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Affiliation(s)
- K E Sakalidis
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - J Pérez-Tejero
- Department of Health and Human Performance, Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - M Khudair
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - F J Hettinga
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Bouvet A, Pla R, Delhaye E, Nicolas G, Bideau N. Profiles of stroke regulations discriminate between finishing positions during international open water races. J Sports Sci 2023; 41:1309-1316. [PMID: 37824415 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2268902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
This study aims to identify stroke regulation profiles and tipping-points in stroke regulation timing during international open water races according to performance level. Twelve elite or world-class swimmers were analysed during 18 international races. Stroke rate and jerk cost were computed cycle-to-cycle using an Inertial Measurement Unit and regulations profiles fitted using polynomials. We performed two-ways mixed-ANOVA to compare stroke kinematics among race segments and performance groups (G1 -fastest- to G3 -slowest-). Swimmers displayed specific regulation profiles (i.e., J-shape with end-spurt, J-shape without end-spurt and reverse L-shape for stroke rate and U-shape, reverse J-shape and reverse L-shape for jerk cost, for respectively G1, G2 and G3) with significant effect of race segment on stroke kinematics for G1 and G2. We highlighted tipping-points in stroke regulations profiles (TP1 and TP2) at respectively 30% and 75% of the race with greater magnitude in G1 than G2. TP1 reflects the end of a stroke economy period (0-30%) and TP2 the end of a progressive increase in stroke kinematics (30-75%) towards end-spurt (75-100%). Open water races follow a high-grading dynamics requiring biomechanical regulations along the race. Targeting stroke rate reserve and management of stroke smoothness should be considered during training of open water swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Bouvet
- M2S laboratory (Movement, Sport & Health), University Rennes 2, ENS Rennes, Bruz, France
- MIMETIC-Analysis-Synthesis Approach for Virtual Human Simulation, INRIA Rennes Bretagne Atlantique, Rennes, France
- CREST (Center for Research in Economics and Statistics), ENSAI, Bruz, France
| | - Robin Pla
- French Swimming Federation, Clichy, France
- IRMES-URP 7329, Institut de Recherche Médicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Erwan Delhaye
- M2S laboratory (Movement, Sport & Health), University Rennes 2, ENS Rennes, Bruz, France
- MIMETIC-Analysis-Synthesis Approach for Virtual Human Simulation, INRIA Rennes Bretagne Atlantique, Rennes, France
| | - Guillaume Nicolas
- M2S laboratory (Movement, Sport & Health), University Rennes 2, ENS Rennes, Bruz, France
- MIMETIC-Analysis-Synthesis Approach for Virtual Human Simulation, INRIA Rennes Bretagne Atlantique, Rennes, France
| | - Nicolas Bideau
- M2S laboratory (Movement, Sport & Health), University Rennes 2, ENS Rennes, Bruz, France
- MIMETIC-Analysis-Synthesis Approach for Virtual Human Simulation, INRIA Rennes Bretagne Atlantique, Rennes, France
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Fariod M, Olher RR, Sousa CV, Scheer V, Cuk I, Nikolaidis PT, Thuany M, Weiss K, Knechtle B. Pacing Variation in Multistage Ultramarathons: Internet-Based Cross-Sectional Study. JMIR Form Res 2023; 7:e46650. [PMID: 37610796 PMCID: PMC10483293 DOI: 10.2196/46650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultramarathon running is the most popular ultraendurance competition in terms of the number of races and runners competing annually worldwide; however, no study has compared pacing and performance over a long period. OBJECTIVE This study analyzes the pacing of successful finishers and nonfinishers in multistage ultramarathons worldwide. METHODS A total of 4079 athletes (men=3288; women=791) competing in 99 multistage ultramarathon events from 1983 to 2021 were analyzed, including the number of participants, age, gender, rank, and running speed of successful finishers. RESULTS The results showed a significant increase in the number of events (n=338) and a significant increase in the number of finishers and nonfinishers (n=5575) in the ultramarathons worldwide during this period. The general linear models (GLMs) of pacing variation showed nonsignificant effects for gender (F1,36.2=2.5; P=.127; ηp2=0.063) and age group (F10,10=0.6; P=.798; ηp2=0.367), but it showed a significant interaction (gender × age) effect (F10,2689=2.3; P=.008; ηp2=0.009). Post hoc analyses showed that men have a higher pacing variation than women in the under 30 years (U30), U35, U45, and U50 groups. Additionally, the fastest women's age group (U35) had the lowest pacing variation. The GLM of pacing variation by gender and event distance showed significant effects for both gender (F1,3=18.5; P<.001; ηp2=0.007) and distance (F2,3=20.1; P<.001; ηp2=0.015). Post hoc analyses showed a growing pacing variation with increasing race distance for both men and women. In addition, men had a higher variation in long events. Furthermore, there was a significant main effect for both genders (F1,3=33.7; P<.001; ηp2=0.012) and rank (F1,3=136.6; P<.001; ηp2=0.048) on performance, with men being faster than women. Pacing varied greatly due to gender (F1,3=4.0; P=.047; ηp2=0.001), with a lower (ie, more even) pacing variation for male athletes in the top 3 finishers. Male nonfinishers showed a higher performance than female nonfinishers (F1,1340=25.6; P<.001), and no difference was identified for pacing variation (F1,789=1.5; P=.228) based on gender. In addition, a weak but significant correlation (r=-0.130; P<.001) was identified between the average running speed and pacing variation for both female and male nonfinishers. CONCLUSIONS In summary, multistage ultramarathon competitions showed an increasing number of competitors and a higher performance challenge. Men have a higher pacing (ie, less even) variation than women, especially observed in longer events. A higher pacing variation was associated with lower performance for men, women, and nonfinishers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mielad Fariod
- Department of Orthopedic, Traumatology and Reconstructive Surgery, Klinikum Frankfurt-Höchst, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Rafael Reis Olher
- Department of Physical Education, University Center of Central Plateau Apparecido dos Santos, Brasilia, Brazil
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Health and Human Sciences, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, Pierre-Benite, France
| | - Ivan Cuk
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, Belgrade,
| | | | | | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St Gallen, Switzerland
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Knechtle B, Cuk I, Villiger E, Nikolaidis PT, Weiss K, Scheer V, Thuany M. The Effects of Sex, Age and Performance Level on Pacing in Ultra-Marathon Runners in the ‘Spartathlon’. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:69. [PMID: 35552909 PMCID: PMC9106765 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00452-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Background Pacing has been investigated in different kinds of ultra-marathon races, but not in one of the toughest ultra-marathons in the world, the ‘Spartathlon’. Objective The aim of the present study was to analyse the pacing of female and male finishers competing in the ‘Spartathlon’ in regards to their age and performance groups. Methods A total of 2598 runners (2255 men and 343 women) finishing ‘Spartathlon’ between 2011 and 2019 were analysed. We selected 10 checkpoints with split times corresponding to important race sections. Average running speed was calculated for each participant and the average checkpoint running speed for each of the 10 race checkpoints. Furthermore, to assess the pacing strategy of each runner, the percentage of change in checkpoint speed (CCS) in relation to the average race speed was calculated (for each of 10 checkpoints). Finally, the average change in checkpoint speed (ACCS) was calculated for each participant as a mean of the 10 CCSs. Results Both women and men slowed down through the first 7 checkpoints but increased running speed towards the end of the race (reverse J-shaped pacing). Men showed a significantly greater CCS in the first and second checkpoint (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, respectively), whereas women showed a more significant change in CCS in the last checkpoint (p < 0.05). Furthermore, age and sex showed no effect on ACCS, whereas ACCS differed between the performance groups. In particular, the slowest and the fastest runners showed a more minor change in ACCS than the two medium groups of both men and women (p < 0.01). Conclusions In summary, successful finishers in ‘Spartathlon’ showed a reverse J-shaped pacing curve with a decrease in running speed from the start to the 7th checkpoint and an increase in running speed thereafter. This strategy was most probably due to the profile of the race course. Men showed a more significant change in checkpoint speed in the first two checkpoints, whereas women showed a more substantial change in the last checkpoint. Age and sex did not affect average checkpoint speed, whereas this speed was different between the different performance groups. The slowest and the fastest runners showed fewer changes in average checkpoint speed than the two medium groups in men and women.
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Consistency of pacing profile according to performance level in three different editions of the Chicago, London, and Tokyo marathons. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10780. [PMID: 35750788 PMCID: PMC9232527 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14868-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Running pacing has become a focus of interest over recent years due to its relationship with performance, however, it is still unknown the consistency of each race in different editions. The aim of this study is to analyze the consistency of pacing profile in three consecutive editions of three marathon races. A database of 282,808 runners, compiled from three different races (Chicago, London, and Tokyo Marathon) and three editions (2017, 2018, and 2019) was analyzed. Participants were categorized according to their time performance in the marathon, every 30 min from 2:30 h to sub-6 h. The relative speed of each section for each runner was calculated as a percentage of the average speed for the entire race. The intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) of relative speed at the different pacing section, taking into account the runner time categories, was excellent over the three marathon editions (ICC > 0.93). The artificial intelligence model showed an accuracy of 86.8% to classify the runners' data in three marathons, suggesting a consistency between editions with identifiable differences between races. In conclusion, although some differences have been observed between editions in certain sections and marathon runner categories, excellent consistency of the pacing profile was observed. The study of pacing profile in a specific marathon can, therefore, be helpful for runners, coaches and marathon organizers for planning the race and improving its organization.
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Casado A, Hanley B, Jiménez-Reyes P, Renfree A. Pacing profiles and tactical behaviors of elite runners. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2021; 10:537-549. [PMID: 32599344 PMCID: PMC8500812 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2020.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The pacing behaviors used by elite athletes differ among individual sports, necessitating the study of sport-specific pacing profiles. Additionally, pacing behaviors adopted by elite runners differ depending on race distance. An "all-out" strategy, characterized by initial rapid acceleration and reduction in speed in the later stages, is observed during 100 m and 200 m events; 400 m runners also display positive pacing patterns, which is characterized by a reduction in speed throughout the race. Similarly, 800 m runners typically adopt a positive pacing strategy during paced "meet" races. However, during championship races, depending on the tactical approaches used by dominant athletes, pacing can be either positive or negative (characterized by an increase in speed throughout). A U-shaped pacing strategy (characterized by a faster start and end than during the middle part of the race) is evident during world record performances at meet races in 1500 m, 5000 m, and 10,000 m events. Although a parabolic J-shaped pacing profile (in which the start is faster than the middle part of the race but is slower than the endspurt) can be observed during championship 1500 m races, a negative pacing strategy with microvariations of pace is adopted by 5000 m and 10,000 m runners in championship races. Major cross country and marathon championship races are characterized by a positive pacing strategy; whereas a U-shaped pacing strategy, which is the result of a fast endspurt, is adopted by 3000 m steeplechasers and half marathoners. In contrast, recent world record marathon performances have been characterized by even pacing, which emphasizes the differences between championship and meet races at distances longer than 800 m. Studies reviewed suggest further recommendations for athletes. Throughout the whole race, 800 m runners should avoid running wide on the bends. In turn, during major championship events, 1500 m, 5000 m, and 10,000 m runners should try to run close to the inside of the track as much as possible during the decisive stages of the race when the speed is high. Staying within the leading positions during the last lap is recommended to optimize finishing position during 1500 m and 5000 m major championship races. Athletes with more modest aims than winning a medal at major championships are advised to adopt a realistic pace during the initial stages of long-distance races and stay within a pack of runners. Coaches of elite athletes should take into account the observed difference in pacing profiles adopted in meet races vs. those used in championship races: fast times achieved during races with the help of one or more pacemakers are not necessarily replicated in winner-takes-all championship races, where pace varies substantially. Although existing studies examining pacing characteristics in elite runners through an observational approach provide highly ecologically valid performance data, they provide little information regarding the underpinning mechanisms that explain the behaviors shown. Therefore, further research is needed in order to make a meaningful impact on the discipline. Researchers should design and conduct interventions that enable athletes to carefully choose strategies that are not influenced by poor decisions made by other competitors, allowing these athletes to develop more optimal and successful behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arturo Casado
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Isabel I University, Burgos 09003, Spain.
| | - Brian Hanley
- Carnegie School of Sports, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds LS6 3QS, UK
| | | | - Andrew Renfree
- Institute of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Worcester, Worcester WR2 6AJ, UK
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Rodríguez L, Veiga S, García I, González-Ravé JM. Stroking Rates of Open Water Swimmers during the 2019 FINA World Swimming Championships. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18136850. [PMID: 34202341 PMCID: PMC8296886 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18136850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present research was to examine the stroking rate (SR) values of successful and non-successful swimmers in the 10 km and 25 km races of the FINA 2019 World Swimming Championships. Data from 175 participants (95 men and 80 female) were classified according to their finishing positions. There were no meaningful differences in the overall SR values displayed by successful or non-successful participants during the 10 km and 25 km open water races of the FINA 2019 World Swimming Championships. However, there were changes in the SR throughout the races that depended on the swimmer’s performance group and gender. Successful swimmers in the 10 km event typically displayed even SR in the first 5 km but, unlike the remaining performance groups, increased their SR at some point in the second 5 km of the race. In the 25 km race, successful female swimmers presented an even SR profile for most of the race, whereas successful males presented a more variable profile. Nevertheless, no relationships between partial or average SR and finishing positions occurred, either in the 10 km or in the 25 km race. Changes in the SR values should be included in the race plan of open water swimmers according to tactical and pacing strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Rodríguez
- Catalonian Swimming Federation, Diputació St., 237, 08007 Barcelona, Spain;
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Carlos III Avenue, 45008 Toledo, Spain
| | - Santiago Veiga
- Health and Human Performance Department, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Martin Fierro St., 28024 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-616001963
| | - Iker García
- Physiology Section, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Spain;
- High Performance Center, Alcalde Barnils, Av. 3-5, Sant Cugat del Vallès, 08174 Barcelona, Spain
| | - José M González-Ravé
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Carlos III Avenue, 45008 Toledo, Spain;
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Filipas L, La Torre A, Hanley B. Pacing Profiles of Olympic and IAAF World Championship Long-Distance Runners. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 35:1134-1140. [PMID: 30289868 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Filipas, L, La Torre, A, and Hanley, B. Pacing profiles of Olympic and International Association of Athletics Federations World Championship long-distance runners. J Strength Cond Res 35(4): 1134-1140, 2021-The aim of this study was to analyze the pacing profiles of Olympic and International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World Championship long-distance finalists, including the relationship with their recent best times. The times for each 1,000-m split were obtained for 394 men and women in 5,000- and 10,000-m finals at 5 championships. Athletes' best times from the previous 32 months were also obtained. Similar pacing profiles were used by athletes grouped by finishing position in 5,000-m races. Women adopted a more even pacing behavior, highlighting a possible sex-based difference over this distance. Pacing behavior over 10,000 m was more similar between men and women compared with over 5,000 m. The main difference between men and women was that in the men's 10,000 m, as in the men's 5,000 m, more athletes were able to follow the leading group until the final stages. There were large or very large correlations between athletes' best times from the previous 32 months and their result; the fastest finishers also ran closer to their previous 32 months' best times. Despite differences in pacing behavior between events, long-distance runners should nonetheless stay close to the front from the beginning to win a medal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Filipas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonio La Torre
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopedic Institute, Milan, Italy ; and
| | - Brian Hanley
- Carnegie School of Sport, Headingley Campus, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
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Oficial-Casado F, Uriel J, Pérez-Soriano P, Priego Quesada JI. Effect of marathon characteristics and runners' time category on pacing profile. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 21:1559-1566. [PMID: 33106120 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1838621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to analyse differences in pacing profiles in four marathon competitions and to explore that pacing per time category. A database of 91,493 runners gathered from 4 different races was analysed (Valencia, Chicago, London and Tokyo Marathon). Participants were categorized in accordance with their completion time. The relative speed of each section for each runner was calculated as a percentage of the average speed for the entire race. In the four marathons studied, the first 5 km differed widely, presenting London the highest relative speeds (5 km: CI95% London vs. Valencia [12.1, 13.6%], p < 0.001 and ES = 2.1; London vs. Chicago [5.5, 7.1%], p < 0.001 and ES = 1.1; London vs. Tokyo [15.2, 16.8%], p < 0.001 and ES = 2.3). Races did not differ at each section for high-performance runners (sub-2:30), but differences between races increased as the time category increases (e.g. 35 km and sub-3:00: CI95% London vs. Tokyo [-3.1, -1.8%], p < 0.001 and ES = 0.7; 35 km and sub-5:00: London vs. Tokyo [-9.8, -9.2%], p < 0.001 and ES = 1.3). The difference in relative speed between the first and second half of the marathon was higher in London than in the other marathons (e.g. CI95% London vs. Valencia [10.3, 10.8%], p < 0.001 and ES = 1.3). In conclusion, although race characteristics affect pacing, this effect was higher as the category time increases. Race pacing characteristics should be taken into consideration for runners and coaches choosing the race and working on pacing strategies, for researches to extrapolate or interpret results, or for race organizations to improve its pacing characteristics.Highlights The first 5 km differed widely on pacing profiles between the four marathons assessed.London had the highest relative speeds in the first 5 km.Race characteristics affect pacing, but this effect was higher as the category time increases.The difference in relative speed between the first and second half of the marathon was higher in London than in the other marathons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fran Oficial-Casado
- Research Group in Sports Biomechanics (GIBD), Department of Physical Education and Sports, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Jordi Uriel
- Instituto de Biomecánica (IBV), Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Pedro Pérez-Soriano
- Research Group in Sports Biomechanics (GIBD), Department of Physical Education and Sports, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Jose Ignacio Priego Quesada
- Research Group in Sports Biomechanics (GIBD), Department of Physical Education and Sports, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain.,Research Group in Medical Physics (GIFIME), Department of Physiology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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More Pace Variation and Pack Formation in Successful World-Class 10,000-m Runners Than in Less Successful Competitors. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 15:1369-1376. [PMID: 32957080 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine different relationships between, and predictive ability of, performance variables at intermediate distances with finishing time in elite male 10,000-m runners. METHODS Official electronic finishing and 100-m split times of the men's 10,000-m finals at the 2008 and 2016 Olympic Games and IAAF World Championships in 2013 and 2017 were obtained (125 athlete performances in total). Correlations were calculated between finishing times and positions and performance variables related to speed, position, time to the leader, and time to the runner in front at 2000, 4000, 6000, 8000, and 9900 m. Stepwise linear-regression analysis was conducted between finishing times and positions and these variables across the race. One-way analysis of variance was performed to identify differences between intermediate distances. RESULTS The SD and kurtosis of mean time, skewness of mean time, and position and time difference to the leader were either correlated with or significantly contributed to predictions of finishing time and position at at least one of the analyzed distances (.81 ≥ r ≥ .30 and .001 ≤ P ≤ .03, respectively). These variables also displayed variation across the race (.001 ≤ P ≤ .05). CONCLUSIONS The ability to undertake a high degree of pace variability, mostly characterized by acceleration in the final stages, is strongly associated with achievement of high finishing positions in championship 10,000-m racing. Furthermore, the adoption and maintenance of positions close to the front of the race from the early stages are important to achieve a high finishing position.
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Polidori G, Legrand F, Bogard F, Madaci F, Beaumont F. Numerical investigation of the impact of Kenenisa Bekele’s cooperative drafting strategy on its running power during the 2019 Berlin marathon. J Biomech 2020; 107:109854. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2020.109854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Maffetone P, Laursen PB. Maximum Aerobic Function: Clinical Relevance, Physiological Underpinnings, and Practical Application. Front Physiol 2020; 11:296. [PMID: 32300310 PMCID: PMC7142223 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The earliest humans relied on large quantities of metabolic energy from the oxidation of fatty acids to develop larger brains and bodies, prevent and reduce disease risk, extend longevity, in addition to other benefits. This was enabled through the consumption of a high fat and low-carbohydrate diet (LCD). Increased fat oxidation also supported daily bouts of prolonged, low-intensity, aerobic-based physical activity. Over the past 40-plus years, a clinical program has been developed to help people manage their lifestyles to promote increased fat oxidation as a means to improve various aspects of health and fitness that include reducing excess body fat, preventing disease, and optimizing human performance. This program is referred to as maximum aerobic function, and includes the practical application of a personalized exercise heart rate (HR) formula of low-to-moderate intensity associated with maximal fat oxidation (MFO), and without the need for laboratory evaluations. The relationship between exercise training at this HR and associated laboratory measures of MFO, health outcomes and athletic performance must be verified scientifically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Maffetone
- Independent Researcher, Ormond Beach, FL, United States.,Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Paul B Laursen
- Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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Díaz JJ, Renfree A, Fernández-Ozcorta EJ, Torres M, Santos-Concejero J. Pacing and Performance in the 6 World Marathon Majors. Front Sports Act Living 2019; 1:54. [PMID: 33344977 PMCID: PMC7739628 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2019.00054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The main goal of this study was to analyse the pacing strategies displayed by the winners of the six World Marathon Majors in order to determine which race offers the greatest potential for future world record attempts. For data analysis, the total distance of the marathon was divided into eight sections of 5 km and a final section of 2.195 km, and time needed to complete each section was calculated in seconds. When we analyzed the mean winning time in the last 13 editions of each of the World Marathon Majors, we observed differences between New York and London (ES = 1.46, moderate effect, p = 0.0030), New York and Berlin (ES = 0.95, small effect, p = 0.0001), London and Boston (ES = 0.08, small effect, p = 0.0001), Boston and Berlin (ES = 0.10, small effect, p = 0.0001), Boston and Chicago (ES = 0.16, small effect, p = 0.0361), Berlin and Tokyo (ES = 0.20, small effect, p = 0.0034), Berlin and Chicago (ES = 0.27, small effect, p = 0.0162). This study shows that Berlin and London are likely candidates for future world record attempts, whilst such a performance is unlikely in New York or Boston.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Joaquín Díaz
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Andrew Renfree
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Worcester, Worcester, United Kingdom
| | | | - Miguel Torres
- Department of Energy Engineering, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Jordan Santos-Concejero
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
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14
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Sandford GN, Day BT, Rogers SA. Racing Fast and Slow: Defining the Tactical Behavior That Differentiates Medalists in Elite Men's 1,500 m Championship Racing. Front Sports Act Living 2019; 1:43. [PMID: 33344966 PMCID: PMC7739615 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2019.00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: 1,500 m running has long been a blue ribbon event of track championship racing. The eventual medalists employ common tactical behaviors such as a fast sustained pace from the start (gun-to-tape), or, slow initial laps that precede a precisely timed race kick. Before the kick, there are positional changes caused by surging, that can go uncharacterized. The inter-relationship of surge events, tactical positioning, and kick execution may have important implications for eventual medal winning outcomes and require further definition. Methods: In a randomized order, three middle-distance running experts were provided publically available video (YouTube) of 16 men's 1,500 m championship races across, European, World and Olympic championships. Each expert determined the occurrence of surges (defined as any point in the 1,500 m after the first 300 m where an athlete repositions by ≥3 places; or noticeably dictates a raise in the pace from the front) and the race kick. Following a second level verification of expert observations, tactical behaviors (quantity and distance marker within each race) mean distance from the finish were compared between fast (≤3:34.00, n = 5), medium (>3:34.00– ≤3:41.99, n = 7) and slow (≥3:42.00, n = 4) race categories. Results: Before the race kick, there were more surges in slow (5 ± 1.7, mean ±90% confidence limits) vs. fast races (1 ± 0.4, very large difference, very likely). The final surge before the race kick occurred earlier in fast (704 ± 133 m from the finish) vs. medium (427 ± 83 m, large difference, most likely), and slow races (370 ± 137 m, large difference, most likely). At initiation of the race kick in fast races, large positional differences were found between eventual gold (2 ± 1.2; likely) and silver (2.2 ± 1.6; likely) vs. bronze medalists (4.4 ± 1.2). In slow races, positional differences were unclear between eventual gold (4.3 ± 4.7), silver (4.8 ± 4.8) and bronze medalists (5.3 ± 1.5). Regardless of category, the race kick occurred on the last lap, with unclear differences between fast 244 ± 92 m medium 243 ± 56 m and slow 236 ± 142 m races. Conclusions: Presenting tactical behaviors by race categorization (slow, medium, fast race times), provides a novel understanding of the nuance of racing tactics. The present findings highlight the importance of considering within race athlete decision making across multiple-race scenarios during championship preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth N Sandford
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Canadian Sport Institute-Pacific, Victoria, BC, Canada.,Athletics Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Benjamin T Day
- High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Simon A Rogers
- School of Health & Human Science, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia.,Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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15
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Hettinga FJ, Edwards AM, Hanley B. The Science Behind Competition and Winning in Athletics: Using World-Level Competition Data to Explore Pacing and Tactics. Front Sports Act Living 2019; 1:11. [PMID: 33344935 PMCID: PMC7739697 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2019.00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine whether World Championship and Olympic medallist endurance athletes pace similarly to their race opponents, where and when critical differences in intra-race pacing occur, and the tactical strategies employed to optimally manage energy resources. We analyzed pacing and tactics across the 800, 1,500, 5,000, 10,000 m, marathon and racewalk events, providing a broad overview for optimal preparation for racing and pacing. Official electronic splits from men's (n = 275 performances) and women's (n = 232 performances) distance races between 2013 and 2017 were analyzed. Athletes were grouped for the purposes of analysis and comparison. For the 800 m, these groups were the medalists and those finishing 4th to 8th ("Top 8"). For the 1,500 m, the medalists and Top 8 were joined by those finishing 9th to 12th ("Top 12"), whereas for all other races, the Top 15 were analyzed (those finishing 9th to 15th). One-way repeated measures analysis of variance was conducted on the segment speeds (p < 0.05), with effect sizes for differences calculated using Cohen's d. Positive pacing profiles were common to most 800 m athletes, whereas negative pacing was more common over longer distances. In the 1,500 m, male medalists separated from their rivals in the last 100 m, whereas for women it was after 1,200 m. Similarly, over 5,000 m, male medalists separated from the slowest pack members later (4,200 m; 84% of duration) than women (2,500 m; 50% of duration). In the 10,000 m race, the effect was very pronounced with men packing until 8,000 m, with the Top 8 athletes only dropped at 9,600 m (96% of duration). For women, the slowest pack begin to run slower at only 1,700 m, with the Top 8 finishers dropped at 5,300 m (53% of duration). Such profiles and patterns were seen across all events. It is possible the earlier separation in pacing for women between the medalists and the other runners was because of tactical racing factors such as an early realization of being unable to sustain the required speed, or perhaps because of greater variation in performance abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florentina J Hettinga
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew M Edwards
- School of Human and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, United Kingdom
| | - Brian Hanley
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
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16
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Konings MJ, Hettinga FJ. Pacing Decision Making in Sport and the Effects of Interpersonal Competition: A Critical Review. Sports Med 2018; 48:1829-1843. [PMID: 29799094 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0937-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
An athlete's pacing strategy is widely recognised as an essential determinant for performance during individual events. Previous research focussed on the importance of internal bodily state feedback, revealed optimal pacing strategies in time-trial exercise, and explored concepts such as teleoanticipation and template formation. Recently, human-environment interactions have additionally been emphasized as a crucial determinant for pacing, yet how they affect pacing is not well understood. Therefore, this literature review focussed on exploring one of the most important human-environment interactions in sport competitions: the interaction among competitors. The existing literature regarding the regulation of exercise intensity and the effect of competition on pacing and performance is critically reviewed in this paper. The PubMed, CINAHL and Web of Science electronic databases were searched for studies about pacing in sports and (interpersonal) competition between January 2000 to October 2017, using the following combination of terms: (1) Sports AND (2) Pacing, resulting in 75 included papers. The behaviour of opponents was shown to be an essential determinant in the regulation of exercise intensity, based on both observational (N = 59) and experimental (N = 16) studies. However, adjustment in the pacing response related to other competitors appears to depend on the competitive situation and the current internal state of the athlete. The findings of this review emphasize the importance of what is happening around the athlete for the outcome of the decision-making process involved in pacing, and highlight the necessity to incorporate human-environment interactions into models that attempt to explain the regulation of exercise intensity in sports and exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco J Konings
- Sport, Performance and Fatigue Research Unit, School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, Essex, CO4 3SQ, UK
| | - Florentina J Hettinga
- Sport, Performance and Fatigue Research Unit, School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, Essex, CO4 3SQ, UK.
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17
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Nikolaidis PT, Knechtle B. Pacing Strategies in the 'Athens Classic Marathon': Physiological and Psychological Aspects. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1539. [PMID: 30450055 PMCID: PMC6224376 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the increased scientific interest in the relationship between pacing and performance in marathon running, little information is available about the association of pacing with physiological and psychological parameters. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to examine the role physical fitness and training characteristics on pacing in the 'Athens Classic Marathon.' Finishers in this race in 2017 (women, n = 26, age 40.8 ± 9.4 years; men, n = 130, age 44.1 ± 8.6 years) were analyzed for their pacing during the race, completed the Motivation of Marathon Scale (MOMS) and performed a series of physiological tests. Women and faster recreational runners adopted a more even pacing. A more even pacing was related with a higher aerobic capacity and lower muscle strength in men, but not in women. Men with more even pacing scored higher in psychological coping, self-esteem, life meaning, recognition and competition than their counterparts with less even pacing. Considering the increasing number of participants in marathon races, these findings might help a wide range of professionals (fitness trainers, physiologists, and psychologists) working with runners to optimize the pacing of their athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pantelis T Nikolaidis
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Nikaia, Greece.,Laboratory of Exercise Testing, Hellenic Air Force Academy, Dekelia, Greece
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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18
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Casado A, Renfree A. Fortune Favors the Brave: Tactical Behaviors in the Middle-Distance Running Events at the 2017 IAAF World Championships. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2018; 13:1386-1391. [PMID: 29809064 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess tactical and performance factors associated with progression from qualification rounds in the 800-m and 1500-m running events at the 2017 International Association of Athletics Federations World Championships. METHODS Official results were used to access final and intermediate positions and times, as well as performance characteristics of competitors. Shared variance between intermediate positions and rank order lap times with finishing positions were calculated, along with probability of automatic qualification, for athletes in each available race position at the end of every 400-m lap. Differences in race positions and lap times relative to season's best performances were assessed between automatic qualifiers, fastest losers, and nonqualifiers. RESULTS Race positions at the end of each 400-m lap remained more stable through 800-m races than 1500-m races. Probability of automatic qualification decreased with both race position and rank order lap times on each lap, although rank order lap times accounted for a higher degree of shared variance than did intermediate position. In the 1500-m event, fastest losers ran at a higher percentage of season's best speed and adopted positions closer to the race lead in the early stages. This was not the case in the 800-m. CONCLUSIONS Intermediate positioning and the ability to produce a fast final race segment are strongly related to advancement from qualification rounds in middle-distance running events. The adoption of a more "risky" strategy characterized by higher speeds relative to season's best may be associated with an increased likelihood of qualification as fastest losers in the 1500-m event.
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19
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Filipas L, Nerli Ballati E, Bonato M, La Torre A, Piacentini MF. Elite Male and Female 800-m Runners' Display of Different Pacing Strategies During Season-Best Performances. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2018; 13:1344-1348. [PMID: 29745743 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To analyze the pacing profiles of the world's top 800-m annual performances between 2010 and 2016, comparing men's and women's strategies. METHODS A total of 142 performances were characterized for overall race times and 0-to-200-m, 200-to-400-m, 400-to-600-m, and 600-to-800-m split times using available footage from YouTube. Only the best annual performance for each athlete was considered. Overall race and split speed were calculated so that each lap speed could be expressed as a percentage of the mean race speed. RESULTS The mean speed of the men's 800-m was 7.73 (0.06) m·s-1, with the 0-to-200-m split faster than the others. After the first split, the speed decreased significantly during the 3 subsequent splits (P < .001). The mean speed of the women's 800-m was 6.77 (0.05) m·s-1, with a significative variation in speed during the race (P < .001). The first split was faster than the others (P < .001). During the rest of the race, speed was almost constant, and no difference was observed between the other splits. Comparison between men and women revealed that there was an interaction between split and gender (P < .001), showing a different pacing behavior in 800-m competitions. CONCLUSIONS The world's best 800-m performances revealed an important difference in the pacing profile between men and women. Tactics could play a greater role in this difference, but physiological and behavioral characteristics are likely also important.
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20
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Renfree A, Casado A. Athletic Races Represent Complex Systems, and Pacing Behavior Should Be Viewed as an Emergent Phenomenon. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1432. [PMID: 30344496 PMCID: PMC6182257 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Pacing is the manner in which effort is distributed over the duration of an exercise bout, and is an important determinant of the extent to which individual potential is realized during athletic races. Observed pacing behaviors are thought to result from complex decision-making processes, and several models have been proposed that may explain the manner in which these decisions are made. In this article we argue that examination of individual factors implicated in the regulation of pacing is unlikely to allow full understanding of the events leading to pacing and performance. Rather than utilizing such a reductionist approach, it is suggested that athletic races be viewed as complex systems, and that pacing behavior is an emergent phenomenon that cannot be fully understood through study of components of the system in isolation. We describe and discuss known and potential interactions between determinants of pacing during races, and conclude with a call for the development of novel research methodologies that may further understanding of the manner in which observed behaviors emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Renfree
- Institute of Sport & Exercise Science, University of Worcester, Worcester, United Kingdom
| | - Arturo Casado
- Department of Physical Education, Isabel I University, Burgos, Spain
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21
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Effect of the Pacing Strategies on the Open-Water 10-km World Swimming Championships Performances. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2018; 13:694-700. [PMID: 29035600 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To (1) compare the pacing strategies of different-level open-water swimmers during the 10-km race of the FINA 2015 Swimming World Championships and (2) relate these pacing strategies to the race performance. METHODS Final and intermediate split times, as well as intermediate race positions, from the 10-km race participants (69 men and 51 women) were collected from the public domain and were divided into 5 groups (G1-G5) depending on their finishing positions. RESULTS Medalists and finalists (G1 and G2, respectively) presented an even pacing profile with swimming velocities similar to those of the less successful swimmers (G3-G5) on the initial and middle stages of the race but a 1.5-3% increase in swimming velocity in the last quarter of the race. This acceleration toward the end of the race, or "end spurt," was largely related to the race performance and was not observed in the G3 and G4 (even-paced profile) or G5 (positive pacing profile) groups. Intermediate race positions and lap rankings were negatively related to finishing position, indicating a delayed positioning of the most successful swimmers at 25%, 50%, and 75% of race distance. CONCLUSIONS The adoption of a conservative starting strategy by open-water swimmers with a negative pacing profile and delayed partial positioning seems to increase the chances of overall race success, as it allows a fast end spurt that is closely related to successful finishing race positions.
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22
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Pacing Strategy and Tactical Positioning During Cyclo-Cross Races. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2018; 13:452-458. [DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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23
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Hettinga FJ, Konings MJ, Pepping GJ. The Science of Racing against Opponents: Affordance Competition and the Regulation of Exercise Intensity in Head-to-Head Competition. Front Physiol 2017; 8:118. [PMID: 28293199 PMCID: PMC5329012 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Athlete–environment interactions are crucial factors in understanding the regulation of exercise intensity in head-to-head competitions. Previously, we have proposed a framework based on the interdependence of perception and action, which allows us to explore athletic behavior in the more complex pacing situations occurring when athletes need to respond to actions of their opponents. In the present perspective we will further explore whether opponents, crucial external factors in competitive sports, could indeed be perceived as social invitations for action. Decisions regarding how to expend energy over the race are based on internal factors such as the physiological/biomechanical capacity of the athlete in relation to external factors such as those presented by opponents. For example: Is the athlete able to overtake competitors, or not? We present several experimental studies that demonstrate that athletes regulate their exercise intensity differently in head-to-head competition compared to time-trial exercises: Relational athlete-environment aspects seem to outweigh benefits of the individual optimal energy distribution. Also, the behavior of the opponents has been shown to influence pacing strategies of competing athletes, again demonstrating the importance of relational athlete–environment aspects in addition to strictly internal factors. An ecological perspective is presented in which opponents are proposed to present social affordances, and decision-making is conceptualized as a resultant of affordance-competition. This approach will provide novel insights in tactical decision-making and pacing behavior in head-to-head competitions. Future research should not only focus on the athlete's internal state, but also try to understand opponents in the context of the social affordances they provide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florentina J Hettinga
- Centre for Sports and Exercise Science, School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex Colchester, UK
| | - Marco J Konings
- Centre for Sports and Exercise Science, School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex Colchester, UK
| | - Gert-Jan Pepping
- School of Exercise Science, Australian Catholic University Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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24
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Brick NE, MacIntyre TE, Campbell MJ. Thinking and Action: A Cognitive Perspective on Self-Regulation during Endurance Performance. Front Physiol 2016; 7:159. [PMID: 27199774 PMCID: PMC4847621 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-regulation reflects an individual's efforts to bring behavior and thinking into line with often consciously desired goals. During endurance activity, self-regulation requires an athlete to balance their speed or power output appropriately to achieve an optimal level of performance. Considering that both behavior and thinking are core elements of self-regulation, this article provides a cognitive perspective on the processes required for effective pace-regulation during endurance performance. We also integrate this viewpoint with physiological and performance outcomes during activity. As such, evidence is presented to suggest that what an athlete thinks about has an important influence on effort perceptions, physiological outcomes, and, consequently, endurance performance. This article also provides an account of how an athlete might control their cognition and focus attention during an endurance event. We propose that effective cognitive control during performance requires both proactive, goal-driven processes and reactive, stimulus-driven processes. In addition, the role of metacognition—or thinking about thinking—in pace-regulation will also be considered. Metacognition is an essential component of self-regulation and its primary functions are to monitor and control the thoughts and actions required for task completion. To illustrate these processes in action, a metacognitive framework of attentional focus and cognitive control is applied to an endurance performance setting: specifically, Bradley Wiggins' successful 2015 Hour record attempt in cycling. Finally, future perspectives will consider the potentially deleterious effects of the sustained cognitive effort required during prolonged and strenuous endurance tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noel E Brick
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of LimerickLimerick, Ireland; Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, School of Psychology, Ulster UniversityDerry, UK
| | | | - Mark J Campbell
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick Limerick, Ireland
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