Manipulating Endoplasmic Reticulum-Plasma Membrane Tethering in Plants Through Fluorescent Protein Complementation

ER-associated VAP27-1 and VAP27-3 proteins functionally link the lipid-binding ORP2A at the ER-chloroplast contact sites

The plant endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contacts heterotypic membranes at membrane contact sites (MCSs) through largely undefined mechanisms. For instance, despite the well-established and essential role of the plant ER-chloroplast interactions for lipid biosynthesis, and the reported existence of physical contacts between these organelles, almost nothing is known about the ER-chloroplast MCS identity. Here we show that the Arabidopsis ER membrane-associated VAP27 proteins and the lipid-binding protein ORP2A define a functional complex at the ER-chloroplast MCSs. Specifically, through in vivo and in vitro association assays, we found that VAP27 proteins interact with the outer envelope membrane (OEM) of chloroplasts, where they bind to ORP2A. Through lipidomic analyses, we established that VAP27 proteins and ORP2A directly interact with the chloroplast OEM monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), and we demonstrated that the loss of the VAP27-ORP2A complex is accompanied by subtle changes in the acyl composition of MGDG and PG. We also found that ORP2A interacts with phytosterols and established that the loss of the VAP27-ORP2A complex alters sterol levels in chloroplasts. We propose that, by interacting directly with OEM lipids, the VAP27-ORP2A complex defines plant-unique MCSs that bridge ER and chloroplasts and are involved in chloroplast lipid homeostasis.

Genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 screen shows that loss of GET4 increases mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum contact sites and is neuroprotective

Organelles form membrane contact sites between each other, allowing for the transfer of molecules and signals. Mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contact sites (MERCS) are cellular subdomains characterized by close apposition of mitochondria and ER membranes. They have been implicated in many diseases, including neurodegenerative, metabolic, and cardiac diseases. Although MERCS have been extensively studied, much remains to be explored. To uncover novel regulators of MERCS, we conducted a genome-wide, flow cytometry-based screen using an engineered MERCS reporter cell line. We found 410 genes whose downregulation promotes MERCS and 230 genes whose downregulation decreases MERCS. From these, 29 genes were selected from each population for arrayed screening and 25 were validated from the high population and 13 from the low population. GET4 and BAG6 were highlighted as the top 2 genes that upon suppression increased MERCS from both the pooled and arrayed screens, and these were subjected to further investigation. Multiple microscopy analyses confirmed that loss of GET4 or BAG6 increased MERCS. GET4 and BAG6 were also observed to interact with the known MERCS proteins, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3R) and glucose-regulated protein 75 (GRP75). In addition, we found that loss of GET4 increased mitochondrial calcium uptake upon ER-Ca2+ release and mitochondrial respiration. Finally, we show that loss of GET4 rescues motor ability, improves lifespan and prevents neurodegeneration in a Drosophila model of Alzheimer's disease (Aβ42Arc). Together, these results suggest that GET4 is involved in decreasing MERCS and that its loss is neuroprotective.

Keep in contact: multiple roles of endoplasmic reticulum-membrane contact sites and the organelle interaction network in plants

Functional regulation and structural maintenance of the different organelles in plants contribute directly to plant development, reproduction and stress responses. To ensure these activities take place effectively, cells have evolved an interconnected network amongst various subcellular compartments, regulating rapid signal transduction and the exchange of biomaterial. Many proteins that regulate membrane connections have recently been identified in plants, and this is the first step in elucidating both the mechanism and function of these connections. Amongst all organelles, the endoplasmic reticulum is the key structure, which likely links most of the different subcellular compartments through membrane contact sites (MCS) and the ER-PM contact sites (EPCS) have been the most intensely studied in plants. However, the molecular composition and function of plant MCS are being found to be different from other eukaryotic systems. In this article, we will summarise the most recent advances in this field and discuss the mechanism and biological relevance of these essential links in plants.

Super-Resolution Imaging of Plant Receptor-Like Kinases Uncovers Their Colocalization and Coordination with Nanometer Resolution

Plant cell signaling often relies on the cellular organization of receptor-like kinases (RLKs) within membrane nanodomains to enhance signaling specificity and efficiency. Thus, nanometer-scale quantitative analysis of spatial organizations of RLKs could provide new understanding of mechanisms underlying plant responses to environmental stress. Here, we used stochastic optical reconstruction fluorescence microscopy (STORM) to quantify the colocalization of the flagellin-sensitive-2 (FLS2) receptor and the nanodomain marker, remorin, within Arabidopsis thaliana root hair cells. We found that recovery of FLS2 and remorin in the plasma membrane, following ligand-induced internalization by bacterial-flagellin-peptide (flg22), reached ~85% of their original membrane density after ~90 min. The pairs colocalized at the membrane at greater frequencies, compared with simulated randomly distributed pairs, except for directly after recovery, suggesting initial uncoordinated recovery followed by remorin and FLS2 pairing in the membrane. The purinergic receptor, P2K1, colocalized with remorin at similar frequencies as FLS2, while FLS2 and P2K1 colocalization occurred at significantly lower frequencies, suggesting that these RLKs mostly occupy distinct nanodomains. The chitin elicitor receptor, CERK1, colocalized with FLS2 and remorin at much lower frequencies, suggesting little coordination between CERK1 and FLS2. These findings emphasize STORM's capacity to observe distinct nanodomains and degrees of coordination between plant cell receptors, and their respective immune pathways.

Alternative splicing of Arabidopsis G6PD5 recruits NADPH-producing OPPP reactions to the endoplasmic reticulum

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase is the rate-limiting enzyme of the oxidative pentose-phosphate pathway (OPPP). The OPPP mainly provides NADPH and sugar-phosphate building blocks for anabolic pathways and is present in all eukaryotes. In plant cells, the irreversible part of the OPPP is found in several compartments. Among the isoforms catalyzing the first OPPP step in Arabidopsis, G6PD1 to G6PD4 target plastids (with G6PD1 being also directed to peroxisomes), whereas G6PD5 and G6PD6 operate in the cytosol. We noticed that alternative splice forms G6PD5.4 and G6PD5.5 encode N-terminally extended proteoforms. Compared to G6PD5.1, RT-PCR signals differed and fluorescent reporter fusions expressed in Arabidopsis protoplasts accumulated in distinct intracellular sites. Co-expression with organelle-specific markers revealed that the G6PD5.4 and G6PD5.5 proteoforms label different subdomains of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and analysis of C-terminal roGFP fusions showed that their catalytic domains face the cytosol. In g6pd5-1 g6pd6-2 mutant protoplasts lacking cytosolic G6PDH activity, the ER-bound proteoforms were both active and thus able to form homomers. Among the Arabidopsis 6-phosphogluconolactonases (catalyzing the second OPPP step), we noticed that isoform PGL2 carries a C-terminal CaaX motif that may be prenylated for membrane attachment. Reporter-PGL2 fusions co-localized with G6PD5.4 in ER subdomains, which was abolished by Cys-to-Ser exchange in the ²⁵⁶CSIL motif. Among the Arabidopsis 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenases (catalyzing the third OPPP step), S-acylated peptides were detected for all three isoforms in a recent palmitoylome, with dual cytosolic/peroxisomal PGD2 displaying three sites. Co-expression of GFP-PGD2 diminished crowding of OFP-G6PD5.4 at the ER, independent of PGL2's presence. Upon pull-down of GFP-G6PD5.4, not only unlabeled PGD2 and PGL2 were enriched, but also enzymes that depend on NADPH provision at the ER, indicative of physical interaction with the OPPP enzymes. When membrane-bound G6PD5.5 and 5.4 variants were co-expressed with KCR1 (ketoacyl-CoA reductase, involved in fatty acid elongation), ATR1 (NADPH:cytochrome-P450 oxidoreductase), or pulled C4H/CYP73A5 (cinnamate 4-hydroxylase) as indirectly (via ATR) NADPH-dependent cytochrome P450 enzyme, co-localization in ER subdomains was observed. Thus, alternative splicing of G6PD5 can direct the NADPH-producing OPPP reactions to the cytosolic face of the ER, where they may operate as membrane-bound metabolon to support several important biosynthetic pathways of plant cells.

A bimolecular fluorescence complementation flow cytometry screen for membrane protein interactions

Interactions between membrane proteins within a cellular environment are crucial for all living cells. Robust methods to screen and analyse membrane protein complexes are essential to shed light on the molecular mechanism of membrane protein interactions. Most methods for detecting protein:protein interactions (PPIs) have been developed to target the interactions of soluble proteins. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays allow the formation of complexes involving PPI partners to be visualized in vivo, irrespective of whether or not these interactions are between soluble or membrane proteins. In this study, we report the development of a screening approach which utilizes BiFC and applies flow cytometry to characterize membrane protein interaction partners in the host Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These data allow constructive complexes to be discriminated with statistical confidence from random interactions and potentially allows an efficient screen for PPIs in vivo within a high-throughput setup.

NbSOBIR1 Partitions Into Plasma Membrane Microdomains and Binds ER-Localized NbRLP1

The receptor-like kinase Suppressor of BIR1 (SOBIR1) binds various receptor-like proteins (RLPs) that perceive microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) at the plasma membrane, which is thought to activate plant pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) against pathogen invasion. Despite its potentially crucial role, how SOBIR1 transmits immune signaling to ultimately elicit PTI remains largely unresolved. Herein, we report that a Nicotiana benthamiana gene NbRLP1, like NbSOBIR1, was highly induced upon Phytophthora parasitica infection. Intriguingly, NbRLP1 is characterized as a receptor-like protein localizing to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane rather than the plasma membrane. Using bimolecular fluorescence complementation and affinity purification assays, we established that NbRLP1 is likely to associate with NbSOBIR1 through the contact between the ER and plasma membrane. We further found that NbSOBIR1 at the plasma membrane partitions into mobile microdomains that undergo frequent lateral movement and internalization. Remarkably, the dynamics of NbSOBIR1 microdomain is coupled to the remodeling of the cortical ER network. When NbSOBIR1 microdomains were induced by the P. parasitica MAMP ParA1, tobacco cells overexpressing NbRLP1 accelerated NbSOBIR1 internalization. Overexpressing NbRLP1 in tobacco further exaggerated the ParA1-induced necrosis. Together, these findings have prompted us to propose that ER and the ER-localized NbRLP1 may play a role in transmitting plant immune signals by regulating NbSOBIR1 internalization.

ER-mitochondria contact sites in neurodegeneration: genetic screening approaches to investigate novel disease mechanisms

Mitochondria-ER contact sites (MERCS) are known to underpin many important cellular homoeostatic functions, including mitochondrial quality control, lipid metabolism, calcium homoeostasis, the unfolded protein response and ER stress. These functions are known to be dysregulated in neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD) and amyloid lateral sclerosis (ALS), and the number of disease-related proteins and genes being associated with MERCS is increasing. However, many details regarding MERCS and their role in neurodegenerative diseases remain unknown. In this review, we aim to summarise the current knowledge regarding the structure and function of MERCS, and to update the field on current research in PD, AD and ALS. Furthermore, we will evaluate high-throughput screening techniques, including RNAi vs CRISPR/Cas9, pooled vs arrayed formats and how these could be combined with current techniques to visualise MERCS. We will consider the advantages and disadvantages of each technique and how it can be utilised to uncover novel protein pathways involved in MERCS dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases.

Connecting the dots: from nanodomains to physiological functions of REMORINs

REMORINs (REMs) are a plant-specific protein family, proposed regulators of membrane-associated molecular assemblies and well-established markers of plasma membrane nanodomains. REMs play a diverse set of functions in plant interactions with pathogens and symbionts, responses to abiotic stresses, hormone signaling and cell-to-cell communication. In this review, we highlight the established and more putative roles of REMs throughout the literature. We discuss the physiological functions of REMs, the mechanisms underlying their nanodomain-organization and their putative role as regulators of nanodomain-associated molecular assemblies. Furthermore, we discuss how REM phosphorylation may regulate their functional versatility. Overall, through data-mining and comparative analysis of the literature, we suggest how to further study the molecular mechanisms underpinning the functions of REMs.

Light microscopy of the endoplasmic reticulum-membrane contact sites in plants

The existence of membrane contact sites (MCS) has been reported in different systems in the past decade, and their importance has been recognised by the cell biology community. Amongst all endomembrane structures, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) plays vital roles in organising the organelle interaction network with the plasma membrane (PM), Golgi bodies, mitochondria, plastids, endosomes and autophagosomes. A number of methods have been used to study the establishment and functions of these interactions, among them, light microscopy appears to be one of the most effective approaches. Here, we present an overview of the discovery of ER-PM contact sites, and highlight the latest developments in light microscopical-based techniques that can be used for their study.

It Started With a Kiss: Monitoring Organelle Interactions and Identifying Membrane Contact Site Components in Plants

Organelle movement and interaction are dynamic processes. Interpreting the functional role and mechanistic detail of interactions at membrane contact sites requires careful quantification of parameters such as duration, frequency, proximity, and surface area of contact, and identification of molecular components. We provide an overview of current methods used to quantify organelle interactions in plants and other organisms and propose novel applications of existing technologies to tackle this emerging topic in plant cell biology.

Ligand-induced monoubiquitination of BIK1 regulates plant immunity

Recognition of microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) triggers the first line of inducible defence against invading pathogens^1-3. Receptor-like cytoplasmic kinases (RLCKs) are convergent regulators that associate with multiple PRRs in plants⁴. The mechanisms that underlie the activation of RLCKs are unclear. Here we show that when MAMPs are detected, the RLCK BOTRYTIS-INDUCED KINASE 1 (BIK1) is monoubiquitinated following phosphorylation, then released from the flagellin receptor FLAGELLIN SENSING 2 (FLS2)-BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE 1-ASSOCIATED KINASE 1 (BAK1) complex, and internalized dynamically into endocytic compartments. The Arabidopsis E3 ubiquitin ligases RING-H2 FINGER A3A (RHA3A) and RHA3B mediate the monoubiquitination of BIK1, which is essential for the subsequent release of BIK1 from the FLS2-BAK1 complex and activation of immune signalling. Ligand-induced monoubiquitination and endosomal puncta of BIK1 exhibit spatial and temporal dynamics that are distinct from those of the PRR FLS2. Our study reveals the intertwined regulation of PRR-RLCK complex activation by protein phosphorylation and ubiquitination, and shows that ligand-induced monoubiquitination contributes to the release of BIK1 family RLCKs from the PRR complex and activation of PRR signalling.

The Nanoscale Organization of the Plasma Membrane and Its Importance in Signaling: A Proteolipid Perspective

Plasma membranes provide a highly selective environment for a large number of transmembrane and membrane-associated proteins. Whereas lateral movement of proteins in this lipid bilayer is possible, it is rather limited in turgid and cell wall-shielded plant cells. However, membrane-resident signaling processes occur on subsecond scales that cannot be explained by simple diffusion models. Accordingly, several receptors and other membrane-associated proteins are organized and functional in membrane nanodomains. Although the general presence of membrane nanodomains has become widely accepted as fact, fundamental functional aspects, the roles of individual lipid species and their interplay with proteins, and aspects of nanodomain maintenance and persistence remain poorly understood. Here, we review the current knowledge of nanodomain organization and function, with a particular focus on signaling processes involving proteins, lipids, and their interactions. Furthermore, we propose new and hypothetical aspects of plant membrane biology that we consider important for future research.

A Combinatorial Reporter Set to Visualize the Membrane Contact Sites Between Endoplasmic Reticulum and Other Organelles in Plant Cell

The membrane contact sites (MCSs) enable interorganelle communication by associating organelles at distances of tens of nanometers over extended membrane surfaces and serve to maintain cellular homeostasis through efficient exchange of metabolites, lipid, and calcium between organelles, organelle fission, and movement. Most MCSs and a growing number of tethering proteins especially those involved in mediating the junctions between endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and other organelles have been extensively characterized in mammal and yeast. However, the studies of plant MCSs are still at stages of infancy, at least one reason might be due to the lack of bona fide markers for visualizing these membrane junctions in plant cells. In this study, a series of genetically encoded reporters using split super-folder GFP protein were designed to detect the possible MCSs between ER and three other cellular compartments including chloroplast, mitochondria and plasma membrane (PM) in plant cell. By expressing these genetically encoded reporter in Arabidopsis protoplasts as well as Nicotiana benthamiana leaf, we could intuitively observe the punctate signal surrounding chloroplast upon expression of ER-chloroplast MCS reporter, punctate signal of ER-mitochondria MCS reporter and punctate signal close to the PM upon expression of ER-PM MCS reporter. We also showed that the ER-chloroplast MCSs were dynamic structures that undergo active remodeling with concomitant occurrence of chloroplast dysfunction inside plant cells. This study demonstrates that ER associates with various organelles in close proximity in plant cells and provides tools that might be applicable for visualizing MCSs in plants.

Tethering of Multi-Vesicular Bodies and the Tonoplast to the Plasma Membrane in Plants

Tethering of the plasma membrane (PM) and many organelles to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) for communication and lipid exchange has been widely reported. However, despite growing interest in multi-vesicular bodies (MVBs) as possible sources of exosomes, tethering of MVBs to the PM has not been reported. Here we show that MVBs and the vacuolar membrane (tonoplast) could be tethered to the PM (PM-MVB/TP tethering) by artificial protein fusions or bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) complexes that contain a peripheral membrane protein that binds the PM and also a protein that binds MVBs or the tonoplast. PM-binding proteins capable of participating in PM-MVB/TP tethering included StRem1.3, BIK1, PBS1, CPK21, and the PtdIns(4)-binding proteins FAPP1 and Osh2. MVB/TP-binding proteins capable of participating in tethering included ARA6, ARA7, RHA1, RABG3f, and the PtdIns(3)P-binding proteins Vam7p and Hrs-2xFYVE. BiFC complexes or protein fusions capable of producing PM-MVB/TP tethering were visualized as large well-defined patches of fluorescence on the PM that could displace PM proteins such as AtFlotillin1 and also could displace cytoplasmic proteins such as soluble GFP. Furthermore, we identified paralogous ubiquitin E3 ligase proteins, SAUL1 (AtPUB44), and AtPUB43 that could produce PM-MVB/TP tethering. SAUL1 and AtPUB43 could produce tethering in uninfected tissue when paired with MVB-binding proteins or when their E3 ligase domain was deleted. When Nicotiana benthamiana leaf tissue was infected with Phytophthora capsici, full length SAUL1 and AtPUB43 localized in membrane patches consistent with PM-MVB/TP tethering. Our findings define new tools for studying PM-MVB/TP tethering and its possible role in plant defense.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Although not previously observed, the tethering of multi-vesicular bodies to the plasma membrane is of interest due to the potential role of this process in producing exosomes in plants. Here we describe tools for observing and manipulating the tethering of multi-vesicular bodies and the tonoplast to the plant plasma membrane, and describe two plant proteins that may naturally regulate this process during infection.