Outlines of a multiple trace theory of temporal preparation

Task-Specific Temporal Prediction Mechanisms Revealed by Motor and Electroencephalographic Indicators

Time prediction is pervasive, and it is unclear whether it is supra-modal or task-specific. This study aimed to investigate the role of motor temporal prediction in preparing to stop a movement following a sensory stimulus. Participants performed a straight-line movement with their finger until a target signal, which occurred after a short or long foreperiod. In one task, participants changed movement direction between trials (multidirectional task), while in the other, they always moved in the same direction (unidirectional task). The motor trajectory and EEG signals were continuously recorded. During the foreperiod, participants slowed down their movement, reflecting preparation to stop. To assess the influence of motor temporal prediction we examined how a given trial influences performance on the subsequent trial (sequential effect) when the movement changes or stays the same (multi- vs. unidirectional). In the unidirectional task, but not in the multidirectional task we found sequential effects on several behavioural parameters. In contrast, sequential effects were observed in both tasks on EEG results. This study revealed a temporal prediction related to motor movement (behavioural indicators), and a temporal preparation while waiting for the target (EEG indicator). These findings highlight the importance of considering various temporal prediction mechanisms.

Self and time in individuals with schizophrenia: A motor component?

Phenomenology suggests a disruption in the experience of time in individuals with schizophrenia, related to disorders of the sense of self. Patients themselves relate a fragmentation of their temporal experience and of their sense of self. Temporal expectations help relate the present moment to the future and we have previously shown that temporal expectations are fragile in patients, and relate to disorders of the self. Here, we investigate whether patients' performance is still impaired when the motor response to the expected event can be prepared in advance. In two different experiments participants (41 patients vs. 43 neurotypicals in total) responded to a visual target occurring at a variable interval (or "foreperiod") after an initial warning signal. Moreover, in Experiment 1 we measured the sense of self with the EASE scale. We observed the usual benefit of the passage of time: the longer the waiting period, the better the preparation, and the faster the responses. However, this effect also comprises sequential (surprise) effects, when a target occurs earlier than on the preceding trial. We evaluated the effect of the passage of time, by isolating trials that followed a trial with the same foreperiod. The benefit of long, versus short, foreperiods was still observed in controls but disappeared in patients. The results suggest that the benefit of the passage of time is diminished in patients and relates to self disorders, even when the task allows for motor preparation. The results suggest that a non-verbal impairment sub-tends disorders of the sense of self.

Individual differences in working memory capacity and temporal preparation: A secondary reanalysis

The ability to prepare and maintain an optimal level of preparedness for action, across some unknown duration, is critical for human behavior. Temporal preparation has historically been analyzed in the context of reaction time (RT) experiments where the interval varies between the start of the trial, or foreperiod (FP), and the required response. Two main findings have come out of such paradigms: the variable FP effect (longer RTs to shorter vs. longer FPs) and the sequential FP effect (longer RTs when shorter FPs follow longer FPs). Several theoretical views of these FP effects have been proposed with some suggesting a dissociation while others argue for an implicit process driven by memory traces. One possible method to test these views of FP effects is to examine how individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) moderate such effects. To this end, I reanalyzed data from three studies in which participants completed measures of WMC and a simple RT task with a variable FP. Results suggest that individual differences in WMC were related to the magnitude of the variable FP and the sequential FP effect in two of three individual studies. A "mega-analysis" provided supportive evidence for a relationship between WMC and both forms of FP effects. The present combined experimental-individual differences study provides a novel approach to better understand how and why individuals vary in temporal preparation ability. Through leveraging several large-scale databases unseen in FP research, I provide a new way of understanding FP effects and response timing more generally.

Exposure to temporal variability promotes subsequent adaptation to new temporal regularities

Noise is intuitively thought to interfere with perceptual learning; However, human and machine learning studies suggest that, in certain contexts, variability may reduce overfitting and improve generalizability. Whereas previous studies have examined the effects of variability in learned stimuli or tasks, it is hitherto unknown what are the effects of variability in the temporal environment. Here, we examined this question in two groups of adult participants (N = 40) presented with visual targets at either random or fixed temporal routines and then tested on the same type of targets at a new nearly-fixed temporal routine. Findings reveal that participants of the random group performed better and adapted quicker following a change in the timing routine, relative to participants of the fixed group. Corroborated with eye-tracking and computational modeling, these findings suggest that prior exposure to temporal variability promotes the formation of new temporal expectations and enhances generalizability in a dynamic environment. We conclude that noise plays an important role in promoting perceptual learning in the temporal domain: rather than interfering with the formation of temporal expectations, noise enhances them. This counterintuitive effect is hypothesized to be achieved through eliminating overfitting and promoting generalizability.

On the nonlinearity of the foreperiod effect

One of the frequently employed tasks within the implicit timing paradigm is the foreperiod task. The foreperiod is the time interval spanning from the presentation of a warning signal to the appearance of a target stimulus, during which reaction time trajectory follows time uncertainty. While the typical approach in analyzing foreperiod effects is based on linear approximations, the uncertainty in the estimation of time, expressed by the Weber fraction, implies a nonlinear trend. In the present study, we analyzed the variable foreperiod reaction times from a relatively large sample (n = 109). We found that the linear regression on reaction times and log-transformed reaction times poorly fitted the foreperiod data. However, a nonlinear regression based on an exponential decay function with three distinctive parameters provided the best fit. We discussed the inferential hazards of a simplistic linear approach and demonstrated how a nonlinear formulation can create new opportunities for studies in implicit timing research, which were previously impossible.

Sequential effect and temporal orienting in prestimulus oculomotor inhibition

When faced with unfamiliar circumstances, we often turn to our past experiences with similar situations to shape our expectations. This results in the well-established sequential effect, in which previous trials influence the expectations of the current trial. Studies have revealed that, in addition to the classical behavioral metrics, the inhibition of eye movement could be used as a biomarker to study temporal expectations. This prestimulus oculomotor inhibition is found a few hundred milliseconds prior to predictable events, with a stronger inhibition for predictable than unpredictable events. The phenomenon has been found to occur in various temporal structures, such as rhythms, cue-association, and conditional probability, yet it is still unknown whether it reflects local sequential information of the previous trial. To explore this, we examined the relationship between the sequential effect and the prestimulus oculomotor inhibition. Our results (N = 40) revealed that inhibition was weaker when the previous trial was longer than the current trial, in line with findings of behavioral metrics. These findings indicate that the prestimulus oculomotor inhibition covaries with expectation based on local sequential information, demonstrating the tight connection between this phenomenon and expectation and providing a novel measurement for studying sequential effects in temporal expectation.

Influence of Mental Training of Attentional Control on Autonomic Arousal Within the Framework of the Temporal Preparation of a Force Task

While temporal preparation has frequently been examined through the manipulation of foreperiods, the role of force level during temporal preparation remains underexplored. In our study, we propose to manipulate mental training of attentional control in order to shed light on the role of the force level and autonomic nervous system in the temporal preparation of an action. Forty subjects, divided into mental training group (n = 20) and without mental training group (n = 20), participated in this study. The influence of the attentional control and force levels on the autonomic nervous system were measured using the skin conductance response and the heart rate variability; the accuracy of the motor responses was measured using a method derived from machine learning. Behaviorally, only the mental training group reinforced its motor and attentional control. When using short foreperiod durations and high force level, motor and attentional control decreased, consistent with the dominant sympathetic system. This resulted in an increased anticipation rate of responses with a higher reaction time compared to the long foreperiods duration and low force level, in which the reaction time significantly decreased, with enhancement of the expected force level, showing consistency with the dominant parasympathetic system. Interestingly, results revealed a predictive relationship between the sympathovagal balance and motor and attentional control during the long foreperiods and low force level. Finally, results demonstrate that attentional mental training leads to the reinforcement of interactions between the autonomic nervous system and attentional processes which are involved in the temporal preparation of a force task.

Can't catch the beat: Failure to find simple repetition effects in three types of temporal judgements

More experience results in better performance, usually. In most tasks, the more chances to learn we have, the better we are at it. This does not always appear to be the case in time perception however. In the current article, we use three different methods to investigate the role of the number of standard example durations presented on performance on three timing tasks: rhythm continuation, deviance detection, and final stimulus duration judgement. In Experiments 1a and 1b, rhythms were produced with the same accuracy whether one, two, three, or four examples of the critical duration were presented. In Experiment 2, participants were required to judge which of four stimuli had a different duration from the other three. This judgement did not depend on which of the four stimuli was the deviant one. In Experiments 3a and 3b, participants were just as accurate at judging the duration of a final stimulus in comparison to the prior stimuli regardless of the number of standards presented prior to the final stimulus. In summary, we never found any systematic effect of the number of standards presented on performance on any of the three timing tasks. In the discussion, we briefly relate these findings to three theories of time perception.

How Does Temporal Blurring Alter Movement Timing?

Subjective uncertainty arises because the estimation of the timing of an event into the future is error prone. This impact of stimulus-bound uncertainty on movement preparation has often been investigated using reaction time tasks where a warning stimulus (WS) predicts the occurrence of a "go" signal. The timing of the "go" signal can be chosen from a particular probability distribution with a given variance or uncertainty. It has been repeatedly shown that reaction times covary with the shape of the used "go" signal distribution. This is interpreted as evidence for temporal preparation. Moreover, the variance of the response time should always increase with the duration of the delay between the WS and the "go" signal. This increasing variance has been interpreted as a consequence of the temporal "blurring" of future events (scalar expectancy). The present paper tested the validity of the temporal "blurring" hypothesis in humans with a simple oculomotor reaction time task where subjective and stimulus-bound uncertainties were increased. Subjective uncertainty about the timing of a "go" signal was increased by lengthening the delay between the WS and the "go" signal. Objective uncertainty was altered by increasing the variance of "go" signal timing. Contrary to temporal blurring hypotheses, the study has shown that increasing the delay between events did not significantly increase movement timing variability. These results suggest that temporal blurring could not be a property of movement timing in an implicit timing context.

What came before: Assimilation effects in the categorization of time intervals

Assimilation is the process by which one judgment tends to approach some aspect of another stimulus or judgment. This effect has been known for over half a century in various domains such as the judgment of weight or sound intensity. However, the assimilation of judgments of durations have been relatively unexplored. In the current article, we present the results of five experiments in which participant s were required to judge the duration of a visual stimulus on each trial. In each experiment, we manipulated the pattern of durations they experienced in order to systematically separate the effects of the objective and subjective duration of stimuli on subsequent judgments. We found that duration judgments were primarily driven by prior judgments, with little, if any, effect of the prior objective stimulus duration. This is in contrast to the findings previously reported in regards to non-temporal judgments. We propose two mechanist explanations of this effect; a representational account in which judgments represent the speed of an underlying pacemaker, and an assimilation account in which judgment is based in prior experience. We further discuss results in terms of predictive coding, in which the previous rating is representative of a prior expectation, which is modified by current experience.

A transcranial magnetic stimulation study on the role of the left intraparietal sulcus in temporal orienting of attention

Adaptive behavior requires the ability to orient attention to the moment in time at which a relevant event is likely to occur. Temporal orienting of attention has been consistently associated with activation of the left intraparietal sulcus (IPS) in prior fMRI studies. However, a direct test of its causal involvement in temporal orienting is still lacking. The present study tackled this issue by transiently perturbing left IPS activity with either online (Experiment 1) or offline (Experiment 2) transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). In both experiments, participants performed a temporal orienting task, alternating between blocks in which a temporal cue predicted when a subsequent target would appear and blocks in which a neutral cue provided no information about target timing. In Experiment 1 we used an online TMS protocol, aiming to interfere specifically with cue-related temporal processes, whereas in Experiment 2 we employed an offline protocol whereby participants performed the temporal orienting task before and after receiving TMS. The right IPS and/or the vertex were stimulated as active control regions. While results replicated the canonical pattern of temporal orienting effects on reaction time, with faster responses for temporal than neutral trials, these effects were not modulated by TMS over the left IPS (as compared to the right IPS and/or vertex regions) regardless of the online or offline protocol used. Overall, these findings challenge the causal role of the left IPS in temporal orienting of attention inviting further research on its underlying neural substrates.

Effects of a neutral warning signal under increased temporal uncertainty

Han and Proctor (2022a, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75[4], 754-764) reported that in a visual two-choice task, compared with a no-warning condition, a neutral warning tone caused shorter reaction times (RTs) but at the expense of an increase in error percentages (a speed-accuracy trade-off) at a constant 50-ms foreperiod but shorter RTs without an increase in error percentages at a 200-ms foreperiod. Also, the spatial compatibility of stimulus-response mappings was found to interact with the foreperiod effect on RT. We conducted three experiments to investigate whether these findings can be replicated without the constancy of foreperiod within a trial block. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants performed the same two-choice task as in Han and Proctor's study but with the foreperiod randomly varied among 50, 100, and 200 ms and RT feedback provided after each response. Results showed that as the foreperiod increased, RT decreased while EP increased, demonstrating a consistent speed-accuracy trade-off. Also, the mapping effect was found to be largest at the 100-ms foreperiod. In Experiment 3, RT feedback was not provided, and the warning tone speeded responses without evidence of an increase in error percentage. We conclude that the enhanced information processing at a 200-ms foreperiod depends on constancy of foreperiod within a trial block, whereas the mapping-foreperiod interaction found in Han and Proctor is relatively unaffected by increased temporal uncertainty.

Pupillary fluctuation amplitude preceding target presentation is linked to the variable foreperiod effect on reaction time in Psychomotor Vigilance Tasks

Understanding temporally attention fluctuations can benefit scientific knowledge and real-life applications. Temporal attention studies have typically used the reaction time (RT), which can be measured only after a target presentation, as an index of attention level. We have proposed the Micro-Pupillary Unrest Index (M-PUI) based on pupillary fluctuation amplitude to estimate RT before the target presentation. However, the kind of temporal attention effects that the M-PUI reflects remains unclear. We examined if the M-PUI shows two types of temporal attention effects initially reported for RTs in the variable foreperiod tasks: the variable foreperiod effect (FP effect) and the sequential effect (SE effect). The FP effect refers to a decrease in the RT due to an increase in the foreperiod of the current trial, whereas the SE effect refers to an increase in the RT in the early part of the foreperiod of the current trial due to an increase in the foreperiod of the previous trial. We used a simple reaction task with the medium-term variable foreperiods (Psychomotor Vigilance Task) and found that the M-PUI primarily reflects the FP effect. Inter-individual analyses showed that the FP effect on the M-PUI, unlike other eye movement indices, is correlated with the FP effect on RT. These results suggest that the M-PUI is a potentially powerful tool for investigating temporal attention fluctuations for a partly unpredictable target.

Addendum: Implicit learning of temporal behavior in complex dynamic environments

New analyses of the data in this study (Salet et al., 2021, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-020-01873-x ) have led us to reinterpret our main finding. Previously, we had attributed better performance for targets appearing at regular intervals versus irregular intervals to "temporal statistical learning." That is, we surmised that this benefit for the regular intervals arises because participants implicitly distilled the regular 3000 ms interval from the otherwise variable environment (i.e., irregular intervals) to predict future (regular) targets. The analyses presented in this Addendum, however, show that this benefit can be attributed to ongoing "temporal preparation" rather than temporal statistical learning.

Statistical learning of spatiotemporal regularities dynamically guides visual attention across space

In dynamic environments, statistical learning of spatial and temporal regularities guides visual attention in space and time. In the current study, we explored whether and how combined spatiotemporal regularities regarding target events guide visual attention. In three experiments, participants performed the additional singleton task. They were asked to search for a target stimulus with a unique shape among five non-target distractors and respond to the orientation of a line inside the target. Unbeknownst to the participants, the moment in time that the search display was presented was predictive of the target location. Specifically, the target was more likely to be presented at one high-probability location after a short interval and at another high-probability location after a long interval. The results showed that participants' performance was better for high-probability locations than for low-probability locations. Moreover, visual search efficiency was greater when the target appeared at the high-probability location after its associated interval than when it occurred there after its nonassociated interval, regardless of whether the distribution of intervals was uniform (Experiment 1), exponential (Experiment 2), or anti-exponential (Experiment 3). Taken together, the results indicate that implicitly learned spatiotemporal regularities dynamically guide visual attention towards the probable target location.

On doing multi-act arithmetic: A multitrait-multimethod approach of performance dimensions in integrated multitasking

Here we present a systematic plan to the experimental study of test-retest reliability in the multitasking domain, adopting the multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) approach to evaluate the psychometric properties of performance in Düker-type speeded multiple-act mental arithmetic. These form of tasks capacitate the experimental analysis of integrated multi-step processing by combining multiple mental operations in flexible ways in the service of the overarching goal of completing the task. A particular focus was on scoring methodology, particularly measures of response speed variability. To this end, we present data of two experiments with regard to (a) test-retest reliability, (b) between-measures correlational structure, (c) and stability (test-retest practice effects). Finally, we compared participants with high versus low performance variability to assess ability-related differences in measurement precision (typically used as proxy to "simulate" patient populations), which is especially relevant in the applied fields of clinical neuropsychology. The participants performed two classic integrated multi-act arithmetic tasks, combining addition and verification (Exp. 1) and addition and comparison (Exp. 2). The results revealed excellent test-retest reliability for the standard and the variability measures. The analysis of between-measures correlational structure revealed the typical pattern of convergent and discriminant relationships, and also, that absolute response speed variability was highly correlated with average speed (r > 0.85), indicating that these measures mainly deliver redundant information. In contrast, speed-adjusted (relativized) variability revealed discriminant validity being correlated to a much lesser degree with average speed, indicating that this measure delivers additional information not already provided by the speed measure. Furthermore, speed-adjusted variability was virtually unaffected by test-retest practice, which makes this measure interesting in situations with repeated testing.

Is Self-Related Cognition Resistant to Time-Based Expectancy?

Individuals adapt to their environments by scheduling cognitive processing capacities selectively to the points in time where they are most likely required. This effect is known as time-based expectancy (TBE) and has been demonstrated for several cognitive capacities, like perceptual attention, task set activation, or response preparation. However, it has been argued that self-related cognition (i.e., processing of information linked to oneself) is universally prioritized, compared to non-self-related information in the cognitive system. Consequently, self-related cognition should be resistant to temporal scheduling by TBE, because individuals maintain a constantly high expectancy for self-related cognition, irrespective of its temporal likeliness. We tested this hypothesis in a task-switching paradigm where participants randomly switched between a self-related task and a neutral task. The tasks were preceded by a short or a long warning interval in each trial, and the interval duration predicted probabilistically the task type. We found that participants showed TBE for the neutral task but not for the self-related task. We conclude that the individual cannot benefit from time-based task expectancy when the to-be-expected task is constantly activated, due to its self-related nature.

Revisiting variable-foreperiod effects: evaluating the repetition priming account

A warning signal preceding an imperative stimulus by a certain foreperiod can accelerate responses (foreperiod effect). When foreperiod is varied within a block, the foreperiod effect on reaction time (RT) is modulated by both the current and the prior foreperiods. Using a non-aging foreperiod distribution in a simple-reaction task, Capizzi et al. (Cognition, 134, 39-49, 2015) found equal sequential effects for different foreperiods, which they credited to repetition priming. The multiple-trace theory of Los et al. (Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 1058, 2014) attributes the slope of the foreperiod-RT function to the foreperiod distribution. We conducted three experiments that examined these predicted relations. Experiment 1 tested Capizzi et al.'s prediction in a choice-reaction task and found an increasing foreperiod-RT function but a larger sequential effect at the shorter foreperiod. Experiment 2 used two distinct short foreperiods with the same foreperiod distribution and found a decreasing foreperiod-RT function. By increasing the difference between the foreperiods used in Experiment 2, Experiment 3 yielded a larger sequential effect overall. The experiments provide evidence that, with a non-aging foreperiod distribution, the variable-foreperiod paradigm yields unequal sequential-effect sizes at the different foreperiods, consistent with the multiple-trace theory but contrary to Capizzi et al.'s repetition-priming account. The foreperiod-RT functions are similar to those of the fixed-foreperiod paradigm, which is not predicted by the multiple trace theory.

Temporal expectancy modulates stimulus-response integration

We can use information derived from passing time to anticipate an upcoming event. If time before an event varies, responses towards this event become faster with increasing waiting time. This variable-foreperiod effect has been often observed in response-speed studies. Different action control frameworks assume that response and stimulus features are integrated into an event file that is retrieved later if features repeat. Yet the role of foreperiods has so far not been investigated in action control. Thus, we investigated the influence of foreperiod on the integration of action-perception features. Participants worked through a standard distractor-response binding paradigm where two consecutive responses are made towards target letters while distractor letters are present. Responses and/or distractors can repeat or change from first to second display, leading to partial repetition costs when only some features repeat or repetition benefits when all features repeat (the difference constituting distractor-response binding). To investigate the effect of foreperiod, we also introduced an anti-geometric distribution of foreperiods to the time interval before the first response display. We observed that distractor-response binding increased with increasing foreperiod duration, and speculate that this was driven by an increase in motor readiness induced by temporal expectancy.

Implicitly learning when to be ready: From instances to categories

There is growing appreciation for the role of long-term memory in guiding temporal preparation in speeded reaction time tasks. In experiments with variable foreperiods between a warning stimulus (S1) and a target stimulus (S2), preparation is affected by foreperiod distributions experienced in the past, long after the distribution has changed. These effects from memory can shape preparation largely implicitly, outside of participants' awareness. Recent studies have demonstrated the associative nature of memory-guided preparation. When distinct S1s predict different foreperiods, they can trigger differential preparation accordingly. Here, we propose that memory-guided preparation allows for another key feature of learning: the ability to generalize across acquired associations and apply them to novel situations. Participants completed a variable foreperiod task where S1 was a unique image of either a face or a scene on each trial. Images of either category were paired with different distributions with predominantly shorter versus predominantly longer foreperiods. Participants displayed differential preparation to never-before seen images of either category, without being aware of the predictive nature of these categories. They continued doing so in a subsequent Transfer phase, after they had been informed that these contingencies no longer held. A novel rolling regression analysis revealed at a fine timescale how category-guided preparation gradually developed throughout the task, and that explicit information about these contingencies only briefly disrupted memory-guided preparation. These results offer new insights into temporal preparation as the product of a largely implicit process governed by associative learning from past experiences.

Temporal Deployment of Attention by Mental Training: an fMRI Study

In this study, we employed a visuo-motor imagery task of alertness as a mental training to examine temporal processing of motor responses within healthy young adults. Participants were divided into two groups (group 1; n = 20 who performed the mental training before the real physical task and a control group who performed the physical task without mental training). We vary the time interval between the imperative stimulus and the preceding one (fore-period) in which temporal preparation and arousal increase briefly. Our behavioural results provide clear evidence that mental training reinforces both temporal preparation and arousal, by shortening reaction time (RT), especially for the shortest fore-periods (FP) within exogenous "FP 250 ms" (p = 0.008) and endogenous alertness "FP 650 ms" (p = 0.001). We investigated how the brain controls such small temporal changes. We focus our neural hypothesis on three brain regions: anterior insula, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex and three putative circuits: one top-down (from dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to anterior cingulate cortex) and two bottom-up (from anterior insula to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex). In fMRI, effective connectivity is strengthened during exogenous alertness between anterior insula and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (p = 0.001), between anterior insula and cingulate cortex (p = 0.01), and during endogenous alertness between dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex (p = 0.05). We suggest that attentional reinforcement induced by an intensive and short session of mental training induces a temporal deployment of attention and allow optimizing the time pressure by maintaining a high state of arousal and ameliorating temporal preparation.

Effects of a neutral warning signal on spatial two-choice reactions

Posner et al. reported that, at short fixed foreperiods, a neutral warning tone reduced reaction times (RTs) in a visual two-choice task while increasing error rates for both spatially compatible and incompatible stimulus-response mappings. Consequently, they concluded that alertness induced by the warning does not affect the efficiency of information processing but the setting of a response criterion. We conducted two experiments to determine the conditions under which the trade-off occurs. In Experiment 1, participants performed the same two-choice task as in Posner et al.'s study without RT feedback. Results showed that the warning tone speeded responses with no evidence of speed/accuracy trade-off. In Experiment 2, RT feedback was provided after each response, and a speed/accuracy trade-off was found for the 50-ms foreperiod. However, better information-processing efficiency was evident for the 200-ms foreperiod. We conclude that the foreperiod effect of a 50-ms foreperiod is a result of response criterion adjustment and that providing trial-level RT feedback is critical for replicating this pattern. However, fixed foreperiods of 200 ms or longer benefit both speed and accuracy, implying a more controlled preparation component that improves response efficiency.

Implicit learning of temporal behavior in complex dynamic environments

Humans can automatically detect and learn to exploit repeated aspects (regularities) of the environment. Timing research suggests that such learning is not only used to anticipate what will happen, but also when it will happen. However, in timing experiments, the intervals to be timed are presented in isolation from other stimuli and explicitly cued, contrasting with naturalistic environments in which intervals are embedded in a constant stream of events and individuals are hardly aware of them. It is unclear whether laboratory findings from timing research translate to a more ecologically valid, implicit environment. Here we show in a game-like experiment, specifically designed to measure naturalistic behavior, that participants implicitly use regular intervals to anticipate future events, even when these intervals are constantly interrupted by irregular yet behaviorally relevant events. This finding extends previous research by showing that individuals not only detect such regularities but can also use this knowledge to decide when to act in a complex environment. Furthermore, this finding demonstrates that this type of learning can occur independently from the ordinal sequence of motor actions, which contrasts this work with earlier motor learning studies. Taken together, our results demonstrate that regularities in the time between events are implicitly monitored and used to predict and act on what happens when, thereby showing that laboratory findings from timing research can generalize to naturalistic environments. Additionally, with the development of our game-like experiment, we demonstrate an approach to test cognitive theories in less controlled, ecologically more valid environments.

Temporal preparation in adults with autistic spectrum disorder: The variable foreperiod effect

Research suggested the possibility that temporal cognition may be different in autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). Although there are some empirical studies examining timing ability in these individuals, to our knowledge, no one directly assessed the ability to predict when an event will occur. Here, we report a study on implicit temporal preparation in individuals with ASD as indexed by the variable foreperiod (FP) effect. We compared a group of adult ASD participants to a group of typically-developed (TD) controls, for their respective abilities to utilize implicit temporal information in a simple detection task with three different preparatory intervals (FP, short, middle and long). Participants were given a warning tone to signal an imminent stimulus, and asked to press a key as quickly as they could upon detection of the stimulus. Both groups were able to use implicit temporal information, as revealed by both the variable-FP effect (i.e., faster response for targets appearing after a long FP) and asymmetric sequential effects (i.e., slower response in short-FP trials following a previous long-FP trial). The TD group exhibited a faster response in a long-FP trial that was preceded by short-FP one, whereas the ASD group did not, as reflected in their higher percentage of response omissions for a target that appeared later than in the previous trial. The reduced ability of ASD participants to modulate their responses under these conditions might reflect a difficulty in time-based monitoring of stimulus occurrence. LAY SUMMARY: Time-processing may be different in autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). This study addressed the ability to anticipate a relevant stimulus's onset according to predictable interstimulus intervals comparing adults with ASD and typically developed controls. We found that ASD participants did not benefit from temporal preparation when stimulus appeared later than previously attended. This suggests a reduced ability in detecting implicit temporal regularities between events.

Time-Based Transition Expectancy in Task Switching: Do We Need to Know the Task to Switch to?

Recent research has shown that humans are able to implicitly adapt to time-transition contingencies in a task-switching paradigm, indicated by better performance in trials where the task transition (switch vs. repetition) is validly predicted by the pre-target interval compared to trials with invalidly predicted transitions. As participants switched between only two different tasks, not only the transition, but also the specific task was predictable; at least indirectly when taking into account the temporally predicted transition in the current trial together with the task in the previous trial. In order to investigate if the time-based expectancy effect for transition in previous studies was due to a specific task preparation or due to an unspecific transition preparation, three different tasks were used in the present study. One of two possible pre-target intervals (500 and 1500 ms) predicted a task switch in the upcoming trial with 90 % probability, whereas the other interval predicted a task repetition with 90 % probability. Results revealed that participants were able to prepare both upcoming repetition as well as switch requirements based on predictive pre-target intervals. This means that humans seem to be able to prepare a task switch in a rather unspecific manner, most likely by inhibiting the task just performed in the previous trial. By suggesting a two-stage preparation model in which switches as well as repetitions benefit both from time-based transition expectancy, although apparently with different cognitive processes being involved, the present study provides important impulses for future research on the cognitive processes underlying human task-switching behavior.

Transfer effects in auditory temporal preparation occur using an unfilled but not filled foreperiod

How quickly participants respond to a “go” after a “warning” signal is partly determined by the time between the two signals (the foreperiod) and the distribution of foreperiods. According to Multiple Trace Theory of Temporal Preparation (MTP), participants use memory traces of previous foreperiods to prepare for the upcoming go signal. If the processes underlying temporal preparation reflect general encoding and memory principles, transfer effects (the carryover effect of a previous block’s distribution of foreperiods to the current block) should be observed regardless of the sensory modality in which signals are presented. Despite convincing evidence for transfer effects in the visual domain, only weak evidence for transfer effects has been documented in the auditory domain. Three experiments were conducted to examine whether such differences in results are due to the modality of the stimulus or other procedural factors. In each experiment, two groups of participants were exposed to different foreperiod distributions in the acquisition phase and to the same foreperiod distribution in the transfer phase. Experiment 1 used a choice-reaction time (RT) task, and the warning signal remained on until the go signal, but there was no evidence for transfer effects. Experiments 2 and 3 used a simple- and choice-RT task, respectively, and there was silence between the warning and go signals. Both experiments revealed evidence for transfer effects, which suggests that transfer effects are most evident when there is no auditory stimulation between the warning and go signals.

The warning stimulus as retrieval cue: The role of associative memory in temporal preparation

In a warned reaction time task, the warning stimulus (S1) initiates a process of temporal preparation, which promotes a speeded response to the impending target stimulus (S2). According to the multiple trace theory of temporal preparation (MTP), participants learn the timing of S2 by storing a memory trace on each trial, which contains a temporal profile of the events on that trial. On each new trial, S1 serves as a retrieval cue that implicitly and associatively activates memory traces created on earlier trials, which jointly drive temporal preparation for S2. The idea that S1 assumes this role as a retrieval cue was tested across eight experiments, in which two different S1s were associated with two different distributions of S1-S2 intervals: one with predominantly short and one with predominantly long intervals. Experiments differed regarding the S1 features that made up a pair, ranging from highly distinct (e.g., tone and flash) to more similar (e.g., red and green flash) and verbal (i.e., "short" vs "long"). Exclusively for pairs of highly distinct S1s, the results showed that the S1 cue modified temporal preparation, even in participants who showed no awareness of the contingency. This cueing effect persisted in a subsequent transfer phase, in which the contingency between S1 and the timing of S2 was broken - a fact participants were informed of in advance. Together, these findings support the role of S1 as an implicit retrieval cue, consistent with MTP.

Reduction of temporal uncertainty facilitates stimulus-driven processes in spatial selection

Previous studies have shown that the reduction of temporal uncertainty facilitates target selection in visual search. We investigated whether this beneficial effect is caused by an effect on stimulus-driven processes or on goal-driven processes in spatial selection. To discriminate between these processes, we employed a visual search task in which participants searched for a shape target while ignoring a color singleton distractor. As an index of stimulus-driven processes, we measured the N2pc evoked by the singleton distractor (N_D). As indices of goal-driven processes, we measured the N2pc evoked by the target (N_T) and the distractor positivity (P_D) evoked by the singleton distractor, respectively. We observed that reducing temporal uncertainty modulated the amplitude of N_D and the onset latency of the N_T, but did not modulate the amplitude of the P_D. These results are consistent with the view that a reduction of temporal uncertainty influences non-selective, stimulus-driven processes in spatial selection.

The time-course of endogenous temporal attention - Super fast voluntary allocation of attention

It is widely accepted that voluntary spatial attention is slow - it can only affect performance with medium and long cue-target intervals. Here, we examined whether this also holds for voluntary temporal attention. We performed a rigorous examination of the time-course of attention allocation to a point in time using two common paradigms for studying endogenous temporal attention: 'constant foreperiod' and 'temporal orienting'. With both paradigms, the task required non-speeded identification of a letter, whose presentation was preceded by a warning cue. This cue was either auditory or visual, and it was either informative or uninformative. Critically, to avoid exogenous attention, the cues did not involve an intensity change. We found significantly higher identification accuracy when the cue was informative than uninformative, suggesting that temporal attention improved perceptual processing. Importantly, reliable effects of temporal attention on perceptual processing were found with as little as 150 ms from cue onset and up to 2400 ms. Hence, measuring endogenous attention in the temporal domain revealed a twofold faster mechanism than what was believed based on measurements in the spatial domain. These findings challenge the common assumption that voluntary processes are inherently slow. Instead, they portray voluntary mechanisms as considerably more flexible and dynamic, and they further underscore the importance of incorporating the temporal domain into the study of human perception.

Temporal attention is not affected by working memory load

Temporal attention refers to the ability to orient attention in time, which serves to enhance performance such as target detection and discrimination and is a fundamental component of cognitive function. Although some research indicates that temporal attention ability is affected by working memory updating, it is unclear whether temporal attention is also affected by the availability of working memory stores. To address this, participants were presented a dual-task paradigm requiring zero, three, or six digits to be held in working memory while engaged in a temporally cued visual discrimination task. Results show that working memory load did not differentially affect the ability to benefit from predictive temporal cues during the visual discrimination task. This indicates that temporal attention is not affected by available working memory stores. Interestingly, posterior beta band (12-30 Hz) activity was differentially modulated by temporal attention and working memory load, such that it decreased prior to expected targets and increased with load. Analysis across participants indicated that those individuals who exhibited greater temporal attention-based modulation of beta activity (i.e., predictive < neutrally cued) displayed improved discrimination performance, but also yielded lowered working memory accuracy. Thus, the ability to benefit from temporal attention processes while multitasking comes at the cost of lowered secondary task performance. Together, these results indicate that available working memory stores do not affect temporal attention ability. Rather, limitations in divided attention ability result in a performance cost that prioritizes one task over another, which may be indexed by beta band activity.

Sustained Visual Priming Effects Can Emerge from Attentional Oscillation and Temporal Expectation

Priming refers to the influence that a previously encountered object exerts on future responses to similar objects. For many years, visual priming has been known as a facilitation and sometimes an inhibition effect that lasts for an extended period of time. It contrasts with the recent finding of an oscillated priming effect where facilitation and inhibition alternate over time periodically. Here we developed a computational model of visual priming that combines rhythmic sampling of the environment (attentional oscillation) with active preparation for future events (temporal expectation). Counterintuitively, it shows that both the sustained and oscillated priming effects can emerge from an interaction between attentional oscillation and temporal expectation. The interaction also leads to novel predictions, such as the change of visual priming effects with temporal expectation and attentional oscillation. Reanalysis of two published datasets and the results of two new experiments of visual priming tasks with male and female human participants provide support for the model's relevance to human behavior. More generally, our model offers a new perspective that may unify the increasing findings of behavioral and neural oscillations with the classic findings in visual perception and attention.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT There is increasing behavioral and neural evidence that visual attention is a periodic process that sequentially samples different alternatives in the theta frequency range. It contrasts with the classic findings of sustained facilitatory or inhibitory attention effects. How can an oscillatory perceptual process give rise to sustained attention effects? Here we make this connection by proposing a computational model for a “fruit fly” visual priming task and showing both the sustained and oscillated priming effects can have the same origin: an interaction between rhythmic sampling of the environment and active preparation for future events. One unique contribution of our model is to predict how temporal contexts affects priming. It also opens up the possibility of reinterpreting other attention-related classic phenomena.

Why Do you Often Stop your Impulsive Behavior at the Last Moment?

Intentional inhibition, a critical ability of human cognitive control, is the capacity to internally withhold a to-be-performed action. In the voluntary decision-making process, the cognitive system continuously generates intentional inhibition to ensure appropriate actions. However, the temporal dynamic of intentional inhibition is unclear. This study investigated the role of temporal preparation in internally generated intentional inhibition using a novel task that involved a modified free-choice task and a foreperiod paradigm. The experiment included Go, No-Go and free-choice trials, and temporal preparation was manipulated by varying the duration and constancy of the interval between the warning stimulus and target stimulus. The results showed that a high degree of temporal preparation can strengthen the intentional decision to inhibit action on free choices. By demonstrating that intentional inhibition is enhanced with increased temporal preparation, the present study illustrates how the cognitive decision-making system controls the flexibility and strategy in human behavior.

The developing predictive brain: How implicit temporal expectancy induced by local and global prediction shapes action preparation across development

Human behavior is continuously shaped not just as a function of explicitly responding to external world events but also by internal biases implicitly driven by the capacity to extract statistics from complex sensory patterns. Two possible sources of predictability engaged to generate and update temporal expectancy are the implicit extraction of either local or global statistical contingencies in the events' temporal structure. In the context of action preparation the local prediction has been reported to be stable from the age of 6. However, there is no evidence about how the ability to extract and use global statistical patterns to establish temporal expectancy changes across development. Here we used a new, child-friendly reaction time task purposely designed to investigate how local (within-trial expectancy bias) and global (between-block expectancy bias) prediction interplay to generate temporal expectancy and consequently shape action preparation in young (5- to 6-year-old), middle-aged (7- to 8-year-old) and old (9- to 10-year-old) typically developing children. We found that while local temporal prediction showed stable developmental trajectories, the ability to use a global rule to action preparation in terms of both accuracy and speed becomes stable after the age of seven. These findings are discussed by adopting a neuroconstructivist-inspired theoretical account, according to which the developmental constraints on learning from hierarchically nested levels of sensory complexity may constitute a necessary prerequisite for mastering complex domains.

Where and when to look: Sequential effects at the millisecond level

Learning and imitating a complex motor action requires to visually follow complex movements, but conscious perception seems too slow for such tasks. Recent findings suggest that visual perception has a higher temporal resolution at an unconscious than at a conscious level. Here we investigate whether high-temporal resolution in visual perception relies on prediction mechanisms and attention shifts based on recently experienced sequences of visual information. To that aim we explore sequential effects during four different simultaneity/asynchrony discrimination tasks. Two stimuli are displayed on each trial with varying stimulus onset asynchronies (SOA). Subjects decide whether the stimuli are simultaneous or asynchronous and give manual responses. The main finding is an advantage for different-order over same-order trials, when subjects decided that stimuli had been simultaneous on Trial t - 1 , and when Trial t is with an SOA slightly larger than Trial t - 1, or equivalent. The advantage for different-order trials disappears when the stimuli change eccentricity but not direction between trials (Experiment 2), and persists with stimuli displayed in the centre and unlikely to elicit a sense of direction (Experiment 4). It is still observed when asynchronies on Trial t - 1 are small and undetected (Experiment 3). The findings can be explained by an attention shift that is precisely planned in time and space and that incidentally allows subjects to detect an isolated stimulus on the screen, thus helping them to detect an asynchrony.

Dissociable influences of implicit temporal expectation on attentional performance and mind wandering

Mind wandering at critical moments during a cognitive task degrades performance. At other moments, mind wandering could serve to conserve task-relevant resources, allowing a brief mental respite. Recent research has shown that, if target timing is predictable, mind wandering episodes coincide with moments of low target likelihood. Conversely, mind wandering can be avoided at moments when targets are expected. In the current study, we tested whether mind wandering can be guided by implicit temporal expectations when target timing is less predictable. In two experiments (Experiment 1: N = 37, Experiment 2: N = 61), participants performed a sustained attention task in which target events were preceded by a variable pre-target interval (foreperiod). As time passes over the foreperiod duration, implicit target expectation increases, given that it has not yet appeared. In Experiment 1, all foreperiod durations were equally probable (uniform distribution: 2-10 s). This resulted in faster responses when targets were preceded by long compared to short foreperiods (foreperiod-effect). In contrast, mind wandering, assessed by thought probes inserted following short or long foreperiods, did not follow this pattern. In Experiment 2, alterations in the foreperiod distribution (left or right-skewed) resulted in changes in the behavioral foreperiod-effect, but mind wandering was unaffected. Our findings indicate that implicit timing strongly affects behavioral response to target events, but has no bearing on the mind wandering. Contrastingly, mind wandering did correlate with performance deterioration due to fatigue (time-on-task), suggesting that the thought probe method was sufficiently sensitive to behaviorally relevant changes in mental state.

Does temporal predictability of tasks influence task choice?

Task performance improves when the required tasks are predicted by the preceding time intervals, suggesting that participants form time-based task expectancies. In the present study, we pursued the question whether temporal predictability of tasks can also influence task choice. For this purpose, we conducted three experiments using a hybrid task-switching paradigm (with two tasks) combining forced-choice and free-choice trials. Each trial was preceded by either a short (500 ms) or a long (1500 ms) foreperiod. In forced-choice trials, the instructed task was predicted by the length of the foreperiod (Exp. 1A and 1B: 100% foreperiod-task contingencies; Exp. 2: 80% foreperiod-task contingencies). In the remaining trials, participants were free to choose which task to perform. In all three experiments, we found that participants’ task choice was influenced by the foreperiod-task contingencies implemented in forced-choice trials. Specifically, participants were overall biased to choose tasks compatible with these contingencies; these compatible choice rates were larger for the short compared to the long foreperiod. Our findings suggest that learned time-based task expectancies influence subjects’ voluntary task choice and that an initially present task bias toward the “short” task is not always overcome at the long foreperiod. We discuss potential underlying mechanisms against the background of voluntary task switching and interval timing.

Temporal Preparation, Impulsivity and Short-Term Memory in Depression

Patient suffering of major depressive disorder (MDD) often complain that subjective time seems to "drag" with respect to physical time. This may point toward a generalized dysfunction of temporal processing in MDD. In the present study, we investigated temporal preparation in MDD. "Temporal preparation" refers to an increased readiness to act before an expected event; consequently, reaction time should be reduced. MDD patients and age-matched controls were required to make a saccadic eye movement between a central and an eccentric visual target after a variable duration preparatory period. We found that MDD patients produced a larger number of premature saccades, saccades initiated prior to the appearance of the expected stimulus. These saccades were not temporally controlled; instead, they seemed to reflect reduced inhibitory control causing oculomotor impulsivity. In contrast, the latency of visually guided saccades was strongly influenced by temporal preparation in controls; significantly less so, in MDD patients. This observed reduced temporal preparation in MDD was associated with a faster decay of short-term temporal memory. Moreover, in patients producing a lot of premature responses, temporal preparation to early imperative stimuli was increased. In conclusion, reduced temporal preparation and short-term temporal memory in the oculomotor domain supports the hypothesis that temporal processing was altered in MDD patients. Moreover, oculomotor impulsivity interacted with temporal preparation. These observed deficits could reflect other underlying aspects of abnormal time experience in MDD.

Evidence for short-term, but not long-term, transfer effects in the temporal preparation of auditory stimuli

Starting procedures in racing sports consist of a warning (e.g., "Set") followed by a target (e.g., "Go") signal. During this interval (the foreperiod), athletes engage in temporal preparation whereby they prepare to respond to the target as quickly as possible. Despite a long history, the cognitive mechanisms underlying this process are debated. Recently, it has been suggested that traces of previous temporal durations drive temporal preparation performance rather than the traditional explanation that performance is related to the currently perceived hazard function. Los and colleagues used visual stimuli for the warning and target signals. As racing sports typically rely upon auditory stimuli, we investigated the role of memory on temporal preparation in the auditory domain. Experiment 1 investigated long-term transfer effects. In an acquisition phase, two groups of participants were exposed to different foreperiod distributions. One week later, during a transfer phase, both groups received the same distribution of foreperiods. There was no evidence for transfer effects. Therefore, Experiment 2 examined short-term transfer effects in which acquisition and transfer phases were completed in the same testing session. There was some evidence for transfer effects, but this was limited, suggesting that there may be modality-specific memory differences.

The time course of distractor-based response activation with predictable and unpredictable target onset

Electrophysiological recording in a temporal flanker task (i.e., distractors preceding the targets) has demonstrated that distractor processing is adjusted to the overall utility of the distractors. Under high utility, that is, distractors are predictive of the target/response, distractors immediately activate the corresponding response (as indicated by the lateralized readiness potential, LRP). This activation has been shown to be markedly postponed when the target predictably occurs delayed. To investigate the occurrence and time course of distractor-related response activation under conditions of unpredictable target onset, we randomly varied the stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA) between distractors and targets and recorded the distractor-evoked LRP. When the distractor utility was high, an LRP occurred shortly after distractor presentation. In case of a long SOA the time course of this LRP was characterized by a drop back to baseline and a subsequent re-activation that reached a substantial level before target onset. These results suggest that distractor processing is characterized by sophisticated adjustments to experienced utility and temporal constraints of the task as well as by further control processes that regulate premature response activation.

Motivation alters implicit temporal attention through sustained and transient mechanisms: A behavioral and pupillometric study

Temporal expectations aid performance by allowing the optimization of attentional readiness at moment of highest target probability. Reward enhances cognitive performance through its action on preparatory and reactive attentional processes. To elucidate how motivation interacts with mechanisms of implicit temporal attention, we studied healthy young adult participants (N = 73) performing a sustained attention task with simultaneous pupillometric recording, under different reward conditions (baseline: 0 c; reward: 10 c/fast response). Target timing was temporally unpredictable (variable foreperiod: 2-10 s, uniformly distributed), in which case implicitly formed timing expectations. Trials were binned according to current foreperiod (FP_n ; short: 2-6 s; long: 6-10 s) and preceding foreperiod (FP_n-1 ; short: 2-6 s; long: 6-10 s). Overall, performance data showed the expected temporal attention effects, with slower responses after shorter FP_n s, particularly when they followed longer FP_n-1 s. Moreover, these temporal effects were significantly reduced in the reward condition. While performance improved in all trial types, the largest benefit appeared in trials that were normally most disadvantaged by invalid temporal expectation. Furthermore, reward motivation was accompanied by an increase in sustained (prestimulus) and transient (poststimulus response) pupil diameter. The latter effect was particularly evident following short FP_n s. The current findings suggest that reward motivation can improve overall attentional performance and reduce implicit temporal bias, both through preparatory and reactive attentional mechanisms.

Short-term temporal memory in idiopathic and Parkin-associated Parkinson's disease

In a rapidly changing environment, we often know when to do something before we have to do it. This preparation in the temporal domain is based on a ‘perception’ of elapsed time and short-term memory of previous stimulation in a similar context. These functions could be perturbed in Parkinson’s disease. Therefore, we investigated their role in eye movement preparation in sporadic Parkinson’s disease and in a very infrequent variant affecting the Parkin gene. We used a simple oculomotor task where subjects had to orient to a visual target and movement latency was measured. We found that in spite of an increased average reaction time, the influence of elapsed time on movement preparation was similar in controls and the two groups of PD patients. However, short-term temporal memory of previous stimulation was severely affected in sporadic PD patients either ON or OFF dopaminergic therapy. We conclude that the two different contributions to temporal preparation could be dissociated. Moreover, a short-term temporal memory deficit might underlie temporal cognition deficits previously observed in PD.

Short-term effects on temporal judgement: Sequential drivers of interval bisection and reproduction

Our prior experiences provide the background with which we judge subsequent events. In the time perception literature one common finding is that providing participants with a higher percentage of a particular interval can skew judgment; intervals will appear longer if the distribution of intervals contains more short experiences. However, changing the distribution of intervals that participants witness also changes the short-term, interval-to-interval, sequence that participants experience. In the experiment presented here, we kept the overall distribution of intervals constant while manipulating the immediately-prior experience of participants. In temporal bisection, this created a noted assimilation effect; participants judged intervals as shorter given an immediately preceding short interval. In interval reproduction, there was no effect of the immediately prior interval length unless the prior interval had a linked motor command. We thus proposed that the immediately prior interval provided a context by which a subsequent interval is judged. However, in the case of reproduction, where a subsequent interval is reproduced, rather than seen, the effects of contextualization are attenuated.

Dissociating Explicit and Implicit Timing in Parkinson's Disease Patients: Evidence from Bisection and Foreperiod Tasks

A consistent body of literature reported that Parkinson's disease (PD) is marked by severe deficits in temporal processing. However, the exact nature of timing problems in PD patients is still elusive. In particular, what remains unclear is whether the temporal dysfunction observed in PD patients regards explicit and/or implicit timing. Explicit timing tasks require participants to attend to the duration of the stimulus, whereas in implicit timing tasks no explicit instruction to process time is received but time still affects performance. In the present study, we investigated temporal ability in PD by comparing 20 PD participants and 20 control participants in both explicit and implicit timing tasks. Specifically, we used a time bisection task to investigate explicit timing and a foreperiod task for implicit timing. Moreover, this is the first study investigating sequential effects in PD participants. Results showed preserved temporal ability in PD participants in the implicit timing task only (i.e., normal foreperiod and sequential effects). By contrast, PD participants failed in the explicit timing task as they displayed shorter perceived durations and higher variability compared to controls. Overall, the dissociation reported here supports the idea that timing can be differentiated according to whether it is explicitly or implicitly processed, and that PD participants are selectively impaired in the explicit processing of time.

Transfer of time-based task expectancy across different timing environments

Recent research on time-based expectancy has shown that humans base their expectancies for responses on representations of temporal relations (e.g., shorter vs. longer duration), rather than on representations of absolute durations (e.g., 500 vs. 1000 ms). In the present study, we investigated whether this holds also true for time-based expectancy of tasks instead of responses. Using a combination of the time-event correlation paradigm and the standard task-switching paradigm, participants learned to associate two different time intervals with two different tasks in a learning phase. In a test phase, the two intervals were either globally prolonged (Experiment 1), or shortened (Experiment 2), and they were no longer predictive for the upcoming task. In both experiments, performance in the test phase was better when expectancy had been defined in relative terms and worse when expectancy had been defined in absolute terms. We conclude that time-based task expectancy employs a relative, rather than an absolute, representation of time. Humans seem to be able to flexibly transfer their time-based task expectancies between different global timing regimes. This finding is of importance not only for our basic understanding of cognitive mechanisms underlying time-based task expectancy. For human-machine applications, these results mean that adaptation to predictive delay structures in interfaces survives globally speeding up or slowing down of delays due to different transmission rates.

Binding time: Evidence for integration of temporal stimulus features

Several lines of evidence suggest that during processing of events, the features of these events become connected via episodic bindings. Such bindings have been demonstrated for a large number of visual and auditory stimulus features, like color and orientation, or pitch and loudness. Importantly, most visual and auditory events typically also involve temporal features, like onset time or duration. So far, however, whether temporal stimulus features are also bound into event representations has never been tested directly. The aim of the present study was to investigate possible binding between stimulus duration and other features of auditory events. In Experiment 1, participants had to respond with two keys to a low or high pitch sinus tone. Critically, the tones were presented with two different presentation durations. Sequential analysis of RT data indicated binding of stimulus duration into the event representation: at pitch repetitions, performance was better when both pitch and duration repeated, relative to when only pitch repeated and duration switched. This finding was replicated with loudness as relevant stimulus feature in Experiment 2. In sum, the results demonstrate that temporal features are bound into auditory event representations. This finding is an important advancement for binding theory in general, and raises several new questions for future research.

Timing in Predictive Coding: The Roles of Task Relevance and Global Probability

Predictive coding models of attention propose that attention and prediction operate synergistically to optimize perception, as reflected in interactive effects on early sensory neural responses. It is yet unclear whether attention and prediction based on the temporal attributes of expected events operate in a similar fashion. We investigated how attention and prediction based on timing interact by manipulating the task relevance and a priori probability of auditory stimulus onset timing within a go/no-go task while recording EEG. Preparatory activity, as indexed via the contingent negative variation, reflected temporally specific anticipation as a function of both attention and prediction. Higher stimulus probability led to significant predictive N1 suppression; however, we failed to find an effect of task relevance on N1 amplitude and an interaction of task relevance with prediction. We suggest the predictability of sensory timing is the predominant influence on early sensory responses where a priori probabilities allow for strong prior beliefs. When this is the case, we find that the effects of temporal prediction on early sensory responses are independent of the task relevance of sensory stimuli. Our findings contribute to the expansion of predictive coding frameworks to include the role of timing in sensory processing.

Learned interval time facilitates associate memory retrieval

The extent to which time is represented in memory remains underinvestigated. We designed a time paired associate task (TPAT) in which participants implicitly learned cue-time-target associations between cue-target pairs and specific cue-target intervals. During subsequent memory testing, participants showed increased accuracy of identifying matching cue-target pairs if the time interval during testing matched the implicitly learned interval. A control experiment showed that participants had no explicit knowledge about the cue-time associations. We suggest that "elapsed time" can act as a temporal mnemonic associate that can facilitate retrieval of events associated in memory.