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Garello S, Ferroni F, Gallese V, Ardizzi M, Cuccio V. The role of embodied cognition in action language comprehension in L1 and L2. Sci Rep 2024; 14:12781. [PMID: 38834574 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-61891-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
In this study we carried out a behavioral experiment comparing action language comprehension in L1 (Italian) and L2 (English). Participants were Italian native speakers who had acquired the second language late (after the age of 10). They performed semantic judgments on L1 and L2 literal, idiomatic and metaphorical action sentences after viewing a video of a hand performing an action that was related or unrelated to the verb used in the sentence. Results showed that responses to literal and metaphorical L1 sentences were faster when the action depicted was related to the verb used rather than when the action depicted was unrelated to the verb used. No differences were found for the idiomatic condition. In L2 we found that all responses to the three conditions were facilitated when the action depicted was related to the verb used. Moreover, we found that the difference between the unrelated and the related modalities was greater in L2 than in L1 for the literal and the idiomatic condition but not for the metaphorical condition. These findings are consistent with the embodied cognition hypothesis of language comprehension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefana Garello
- Unit of Neuroscience, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126, Parma, Italy.
| | - Francesca Ferroni
- Unit of Neuroscience, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126, Parma, Italy
| | - Vittorio Gallese
- Unit of Neuroscience, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126, Parma, Italy
- Italian Academy for Advanced Studies in America, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Martina Ardizzi
- Unit of Neuroscience, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126, Parma, Italy.
| | - Valentina Cuccio
- Department of Ancient and Modern Civilizations, University of Messina, 98168, Messina, Italy
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Yang J, Cao F, van Heuven WJB, Mei L. Editorial: Second language learning and neuroplasticity: individual differences. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1417238. [PMID: 38813565 PMCID: PMC11133865 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1417238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yang
- School of International Studies, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Fan Cao
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | | | - Leilei Mei
- Philosophy and Social Science Laboratory of Reading and Development in Children and Adolescents (South China Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
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3
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Berger L, Mouthon M, Jost LB, Schwab S, Aybek S, Annoni JM. Does Diglossia Impact Brain Structure? Data from Swiss German Early Diglossic Speakers. Brain Sci 2024; 14:304. [PMID: 38671956 PMCID: PMC11048535 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14040304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Bilingualism has been reported to shape the brain by inducing cortical changes in cortical and subcortical language and executive networks. Similar yet different to bilingualism, diglossia is common in Switzerland, where the German-speaking population switches between an everyday spoken Swiss German (CH-GER) dialect and the standard German (stGER) used for reading and writing. However, no data are available for diglossia, defined as the use of different varieties or dialects of the same language, regarding brain structure. The aim of our study is to investigate if the presence of this type of diglossia has an impact on the brain structure, similar to the effects seen in bilingualism. (2) Methods: T1-weighted anatomical MRI scans of participants were used to compare the grey matter density and grey matter volume of 22 early diglossic CH-GER-speaking and 20 non-diglossic French-speaking right-handed university students, matched for age, linguistics and academic background. The images were processed with Statistical Parametric Mapping SPM12 and analyzed via voxel- and surface-based morphometry. (3) Results: A Bayesian ANCOVA on the whole brain revealed no differences between the groups. Also, for the five regions of interest (i.e., planum temporale, caudate nucleus, ACC, DLPFC and left interior parietal lobule), no differences in the cortical volume or thickness were found using the same statistical approach. (4) Conclusion: The results of this study may suggest that early diglossia does not shape the brain structure in the same manner as bilingualism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Berger
- Department of Neuroscience and Movement Science, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (L.B.); (M.M.); (L.B.J.); (S.A.)
- Lucern Regional Hospital Sursee, 6210 Sursee, Switzerland
| | - Michael Mouthon
- Department of Neuroscience and Movement Science, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (L.B.); (M.M.); (L.B.J.); (S.A.)
| | - Lea B. Jost
- Department of Neuroscience and Movement Science, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (L.B.); (M.M.); (L.B.J.); (S.A.)
| | - Sandra Schwab
- Department of French, Faculty of Art, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland;
| | - Selma Aybek
- Department of Neuroscience and Movement Science, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (L.B.); (M.M.); (L.B.J.); (S.A.)
- Functional Neurological Disorder (FND) Research Group, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Marie Annoni
- Department of Neuroscience and Movement Science, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (L.B.); (M.M.); (L.B.J.); (S.A.)
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4
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Mendez MF. Can Speaking More Than One Language Help Prevent Alzheimer's Disease? J Alzheimers Dis 2023; 95:363-377. [PMID: 37545240 DOI: 10.3233/jad-230285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurocognitive disorder that is epidemic in the elderly population. Currently, there are limited pharmacological interventions, and this has heightened the urgency to identify potential preventable or modifiable risk factors that promote resilience to the neuropathological effects of AD. The regular use of two or more languages is one such factor that may increases cognitive reserve through the long-standing executive control involved in managing multiple languages in the brain. There is also evidence that bilingualism is associated with increased brain reserve or maintenance, particularly in frontal-executive structures and networks. This review examines the current, sometimes conflicting literature on bi/multilingualism and AD. These studies have confounding variations in the assessment of age of second language onset, language proficiency, language usage, and whether determining incidence of AD or age of symptom onset. Despite these limitations, most publications support the presence of increased frontal-executive reserve that compensates for the development of AD neuropathology and, thereby, delays the emergence of clinical symptoms of dementia by about 4-5 years. Although regularly speaking more than one language does not protect against AD neuropathology, the delay in its clinical expression has a potentially significant impact on the lifelong morbidity from this age-related disease. Learning other languages may be an important modifiable factor for delaying the clinical expression of AD in later life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario F Mendez
- Departments of Neurology and Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, and Neurology Service, Neurobehavior Unit, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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5
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Ballerini A, Tondelli M, Talami F, Molinari MA, Micalizzi E, Giovannini G, Turchi G, Malagoli M, Genovese M, Meletti S, Vaudano AE. Amygdala subnuclear volumes in temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis and in non-lesional patients. Brain Commun 2022; 4:fcac225. [PMID: 36213310 PMCID: PMC9536297 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcac225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Together with hippocampus, the amygdala is important in the epileptogenic network of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Recently, an increase in amygdala volumes (i.e. amygdala enlargement) has been proposed as morphological biomarker of a subtype of temporal lobe epilepsy patients without MRI abnormalities, although other data suggest that this finding might be unspecific and not exclusive to temporal lobe epilepsy. In these studies, the amygdala is treated as a single entity, while instead it is composed of different nuclei, each with peculiar function and connection. By adopting a recently developed methodology of amygdala’s subnuclei parcellation based of high-resolution T1-weighted image, this study aims to map specific amygdalar subnuclei participation in temporal lobe epilepsy due to hippocampal sclerosis (n = 24) and non-lesional temporal lobe epilepsy (n = 24) with respect to patients with focal extratemporal lobe epilepsies (n = 20) and healthy controls (n = 30). The volumes of amygdala subnuclei were compared between groups adopting multivariate analyses of covariance and correlated with clinical variables. Additionally, a logistic regression analysis on the nuclei resulting statistically different across groups was performed. Compared with other populations, temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis showed a significant atrophy of the whole amygdala (pBonferroni = 0.040), particularly the basolateral complex (pBonferroni = 0.033), while the non-lesional temporal lobe epilepsy group demonstrated an isolated hypertrophy of the medial nucleus (pBonferroni = 0.012). In both scenarios, the involved amygdala was ipsilateral to the epileptic focus. The medial nucleus demonstrated a volume increase even in extratemporal lobe epilepsies although contralateral to the seizure onset hemisphere (pBonferroni = 0.037). Non-lesional patients with psychiatric comorbidities showed a larger ipsilateral lateral nucleus compared with those without psychiatric disorders. This exploratory study corroborates the involvement of the amygdala in temporal lobe epilepsy, particularly in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy and suggests a different amygdala subnuclei engagement depending on the aetiology and lateralization of epilepsy. Furthermore, the logistic regression analysis indicated that the basolateral complex and the medial nucleus of amygdala can be helpful to differentiate temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis and with MRI negative, respectively, versus controls with a consequent potential clinical yield. Finally, the present results contribute to the literature about the amygdala enlargement in temporal lobe epilepsy, suggesting that the increased volume of amygdala can be regarded as epilepsy-related structural changes common across different syndromes whose meaning should be clarified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Ballerini
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena 41125 , Italy
| | | | - Francesca Talami
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena 41125 , Italy
| | | | - Elisa Micalizzi
- PhD Program in Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena 41121 , Italy
| | - Giada Giovannini
- Neurology Unit, OCB Hospital, AOU Modena , Modena 41126 , Italy
- PhD Program in Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena 41121 , Italy
| | - Giulia Turchi
- Neurology Unit, OCB Hospital, AOU Modena , Modena 41126 , Italy
| | - Marcella Malagoli
- Neuroradiology Unit, OCB Hospital, AOU Modena , Modena 41126 , Italy
| | - Maurilio Genovese
- Neuroradiology Unit, OCB Hospital, AOU Modena , Modena 41126 , Italy
| | - Stefano Meletti
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena 41125 , Italy
- Neurology Unit, OCB Hospital, AOU Modena , Modena 41126 , Italy
| | - Anna Elisabetta Vaudano
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena 41125 , Italy
- Neurology Unit, OCB Hospital, AOU Modena , Modena 41126 , Italy
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6
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Xu X, Jin Y, Pan N, Cao M, Jing J, Ma J, Fan X, Tan S, Song X, Li X. A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study on the White Matter Structures Related to the Phonology in Cantonese-Mandarin Bilinguals. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:851669. [PMID: 35601910 PMCID: PMC9120590 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.851669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cantonese and Mandarin are logographic languages, and the phonology is the main difference between the two languages. It is unclear whether the long-term experience of Cantonese-Mandarin bilingualism will shape different brain white matter structures related to phonological processing. A total of 30 Cantonese-Mandarin bilinguals and 30 Mandarin monolinguals completed diffusion-weighted imaging scan and phonological processing tasks. The tractography and tract-based spatial statistics were used to investigate the structural differences in the bilateral superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF), and inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFOF) between Cantonese-Mandarin bilinguals and Mandarin monolinguals. The post-hoc correlation analysis was conducted to investigate the relationship between the different structures with phonological processing skills. Compared to the Mandarin monolinguals, the Cantonese-Mandarin bilinguals had higher fractional anisotropy (FA) along the left ILFs higher mean diffusivity (MD) along the right IFOF and the temporoparietal segment of SLF (tSLF), higher axial diffusivity (AD) in the right IFOF and left ILF, and lower number of streamlines in the bilateral tSLF. The mean AD of the different voxels in the right IFOF and the mean FA of the different voxels in the left ILF were positively correlated with the inverse efficiency score (IES) of the Cantonese auditory and Mandarin visual rhyming judgment tasks, respectively, within the bilingual group. The correlation between FA and IES was different among the groups. The long-term experience of Cantonese-Mandarin bilinguals shapes the different brain white matter structures in tSLF, IFOF, and ILF. Compared to the monolinguals, the bilinguals' white matter showed higher diffusivity, especially in the axonal direction. These changes were related to bilinguals' phonological processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Xu
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuying Jin
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ning Pan
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Muqing Cao
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jin Jing
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jingwen Ma
- Guangdong Provincial Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoxuan Fan
- Wuhan Children’s Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Si Tan
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaojing Song
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiuhong Li
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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7
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Zhang H, Diaz MT, Guo T, Kroll JF. Language immersion and language training: Two paths to enhanced language regulation and cognitive control. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2021; 223:105043. [PMID: 34741985 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2021.105043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
When bilinguals switch languages they regulate the more dominant language to enable spoken production in the less dominant language. How do they engage cognitive control to accomplish regulation? We examined this issue by comparing the consequences of training on language switching in two different contexts. Chinese-English bilinguals were immersed in English (L2) while studying abroad (this study) or in Chinese (L1) in their native language environment (Zhang et al., 2015). In each study, participants performed the AX-CPT task while EEG was recorded and were then trained on language switching. While Zhang et al. found that training enhanced proactive control in the L1 context, there were no effects of training under L2 immersion conditions. Critically, L2 immersed bilinguals revealed enhanced proactive control at pre-test and greater L1 inhibition on language switching relative to L1 immersed bilinguals. We hypothesize that L2 immersion creates a natural training context that increases reliance on proactive control to enable regulation of the L1.
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8
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Claussenius-Kalman H, Hernandez AE, Li P. Expertise, ecosystem, and emergentism: Dynamic developmental bilingualism. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2021; 222:105013. [PMID: 34520977 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2021.105013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Bilingual language representation and cognitive control effects may reflect the dynamic interactions among the complex learning environment, genotype of the individual, and developing cognitive abilities. In this paper we propose a framework considering such interactions. Specifically, we present a nonlinear, developmentally-oriented perspective in which each individual represents a developmental trajectory in multidimensional space. These trajectories focus on the cognitive ecosystem (and how said ecosystem changes over time) and individual expertise (which affects and is affected by the ecosystem). The interactions between ecosystem and expertise lead to the emergence of a system that is built to handle the communicative needs of the individual.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Claussenius-Kalman
- Department of Psychology, The University of Houston, 4800 Calhoun Rd, Houston, TX 77004, United States.
| | - Arturo E Hernandez
- Department of Psychology, The University of Houston, 4800 Calhoun Rd, Houston, TX 77004, United States
| | - Ping Li
- Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, Faculty of Humanities, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
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9
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Vukovic N, Hansen B, Lund TE, Jespersen S, Shtyrov Y. Rapid microstructural plasticity in the cortical semantic network following a short language learning session. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001290. [PMID: 34125828 PMCID: PMC8202930 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the clear importance of language in our life, our vital ability to quickly and effectively learn new words and meanings is neurobiologically poorly understood. Conventional knowledge maintains that language learning—especially in adulthood—is slow and laborious. Furthermore, its structural basis remains unclear. Even though behavioural manifestations of learning are evident near instantly, previous neuroimaging work across a range of semantic categories has largely studied neural changes associated with months or years of practice. Here, we address rapid neuroanatomical plasticity accompanying new lexicon acquisition, specifically focussing on the learning of action-related language, which has been linked to the brain’s motor systems. Our results show that it is possible to measure and to externally modulate (using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of motor cortex) cortical microanatomic reorganisation after mere minutes of new word learning. Learning-induced microstructural changes, as measured by diffusion kurtosis imaging (DKI) and machine learning-based analysis, were evident in prefrontal, temporal, and parietal neocortical sites, likely reflecting integrative lexico-semantic processing and formation of new memory circuits immediately during the learning tasks. These results suggest a structural basis for the rapid neocortical word encoding mechanism and reveal the causally interactive relationship of modal and associative brain regions in supporting learning and word acquisition. This combined neuroimaging and brain stimulation study reveals rapid and distributed microstructural plasticity after a single immersive language learning session, demonstrating the causal relevance of the motor cortex in encoding the meaning of novel action words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Vukovic
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Brian Hansen
- Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Sune Jespersen
- Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Yury Shtyrov
- Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Centre for Cognition and Decision making, HSE University, Moscow, Russia
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10
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McCullough S, Emmorey K. Effects of deafness and sign language experience on the human brain: voxel-based and surface-based morphometry. LANGUAGE, COGNITION AND NEUROSCIENCE 2021; 36:422-439. [PMID: 33959670 PMCID: PMC8096161 DOI: 10.1080/23273798.2020.1854793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
We investigated how deafness and sign language experience affect the human brain by comparing neuroanatomical structures across congenitally deaf signers (n = 30), hearing native signers (n = 30), and hearing sign-naïve controls (n = 30). Both voxel-based and surface-based morphometry results revealed deafness-related structural changes in visual cortices (grey matter), right frontal lobe (gyrification), and left Heschl's gyrus (white matter). The comparisons also revealed changes associated with lifelong signing experience: expansions in the surface area within left anterior temporal and left occipital lobes, and a reduction in cortical thickness in the right occipital lobe for deaf and hearing signers. Structural changes within these brain regions may be related to adaptations in the neural networks involved in processing signed language (e.g. visual perception of face and body movements). Hearing native signers also had unique neuroanatomical changes (e.g. reduced gyrification in premotor areas), perhaps due to lifelong experience with both a spoken and a signed language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen McCullough
- Laboratory for Language and Cognitive Neuroscience, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Karen Emmorey
- Laboratory for Language and Cognitive Neuroscience, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
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11
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Liu H, Wu L. Lifelong Bilingualism Functions as an Alternative Intervention for Cognitive Reserve Against Alzheimer's Disease. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:696015. [PMID: 34366926 PMCID: PMC8339371 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.696015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bilingualism has been reported to significantly delay the onset of dementia and plays an important role in the management of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a condition inducing impairment in the brain network and cognitive decline. Cognitive reserve is associated with the adaptive maintenance of neural functions by protecting against neuropathology. Bilingualism acts as a beneficial environmental factor contributing to cognitive reserve, although some potential confounding variables still need further elucidation. In this article, the relationship between bilingualism and cognitive reserve is discussed, interpreting the advantage of bilingualism in protecting against cognitive decline. In addition, the possible brain and biochemical mechanisms, supporting the advantageous effects of bilingualism in delaying the onset of dementia, involved in bilingualism are reviewed. Effectively, bilingualism can be considered as a pharmacological intervention with no side effects. However, the investigation of the pharmacological parameters of bilingualism is still at an early stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiqing Liu
- Department of Foreign Languages, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Longhuo Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
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12
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Beyond Alzheimer's disease: Can bilingualism be a more generalized protective factor in neurodegeneration? Neuropsychologia 2020; 147:107593. [PMID: 32882240 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Bilingualism has been argued to have an impact on cognition and brain structure. Effects have been reported across the lifespan: from healthy children to ageing adults, including clinical (ageing) populations. It has been argued that active bilingualism may significantly contribute to the delaying of the expression of Alzheimer's disease symptoms. If bilingualism plays an ameliorative role against the expression of neurodegeneration in dementia, it is possible that it could have similar effects for other neurodegenerative disorders, including Multiple Sclerosis, Parkinson's and Huntington's Diseases. To date, however, direct relevant evidence remains limited, not least because the necessary scientific motivations for investigating this with greater depth have not yet been fully articulated. Herein, we provide a roadmap that reviews the relevant literatures, highlighting potential links across neurodegenerative disorders and bilingualism more generally.
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The effect of bilingualism on brain development from early childhood to young adulthood. Brain Struct Funct 2020; 225:2131-2152. [PMID: 32691216 PMCID: PMC7473972 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-020-02115-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Bilingualism affects the structure of the brain in adults, as evidenced by experience-dependent grey and white matter changes in brain structures implicated in language learning, processing, and control. However, limited evidence exists on how bilingualism may influence brain development. We examined the developmental patterns of both grey and white matter structures in a cross-sectional study of a large sample (n = 711 for grey matter, n = 637 for white matter) of bilingual and monolingual participants, aged 3–21 years. Metrics of grey matter (thickness, volume, and surface area) and white matter (fractional anisotropy and mean diffusivity) were examined across 41 cortical and subcortical brain structures and 20 tracts, respectively. We used generalized additive modelling to analyze whether, how, and where the developmental trajectories of bilinguals and monolinguals might differ. Bilingual and monolingual participants manifested distinct developmental trajectories in both grey and white matter structures. As compared to monolinguals, bilinguals showed: (a) more grey matter (less developmental loss) starting during late childhood and adolescence, mainly in frontal and parietal regions (particularly in the inferior frontal gyrus pars opercularis, superior frontal cortex, inferior and superior parietal cortex, and precuneus); and (b) higher white matter integrity (greater developmental increase) starting during mid-late adolescence, specifically in striatal–inferior frontal fibers. The data suggest that there may be a developmental basis to the well-documented structural differences in the brain between bilingual and monolingual adults.
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Bice K, Yamasaki BL, Prat CS. Bilingual Language Experience Shapes Resting-State Brain Rhythms. NEUROBIOLOGY OF LANGUAGE (CAMBRIDGE, MASS.) 2020; 1:288-318. [PMID: 37215228 PMCID: PMC10158654 DOI: 10.1162/nol_a_00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
An increasing body of research has investigated how bilingual language experience changes brain structure and function, including changes to task-free, or "resting-state" brain connectivity. Such findings provide important evidence about how the brain continues to be shaped by different language experiences throughout the lifespan. The neural effects of bilingual language experience can provide evidence about the additional processing demands placed on the linguistic and/or executive systems by dual-language use. While considerable research has used MRI to examine where these changes occur, such methods cannot reveal the temporal dynamics of functioning brain networks at rest. The current study used data from task-free EEGS to disentangle how the linguistic and cognitive demands of bilingual language use impact brain functioning. Data analyzed from 106 bilinguals and 91 monolinguals revealed that bilinguals had greater alpha power, and significantly greater and broader coherence in the alpha and beta frequency ranges than monolinguals. Follow-up analyses showed that higher alpha was related to language control: more second-language use, higher native-language proficiency, and earlier age of second-language acquisition. Bilateral beta power was related to native-language proficiency, whereas theta was related to native-language proficiency only in left-hemisphere electrodes. The results contribute to our understanding of how the linguistic and cognitive requirements of dual-language use shape intrinsic brain activity, and what the broader implications for information processing may be.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brianna L. Yamasaki
- Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences and Department of Psychology, University of Washington
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University
| | - Chantel S. Prat
- Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences and Department of Psychology, University of Washington
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15
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Machine Learning for Brain Images Classification of Two Language Speakers. COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND NEUROSCIENCE 2020; 2020:9045456. [PMID: 32587607 PMCID: PMC7294350 DOI: 10.1155/2020/9045456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The image analysis of the brain with machine learning continues to be a relevant work for the detection of different characteristics of this complex organ. Recent research has observed that there are differences in the structure of the brain, specifically in white matter, when learning and using a second language. This work focuses on knowing the brain from the classification of Magnetic Resonance Images (MRIs) of bilingual and monolingual people who have English as their common language. Different artificial neural networks of a hidden layer were tested until reaching two neurons in that layer. The number of entries used was nine hundred and the classifier registered a high percentage of effectiveness. The training was supervised which could be improved in a future investigation. This task is usually carried out by an expert human with Tract-Based Spatial Statistics analysis and fractional anisotropy expressed in different colors on a screen. So, this proposal presents another option to quantitatively analyse this type of phenomena which allows to contribute to neuroscience by automatically detecting bilingual people of monolinguals by using machine learning from MRIs. This reinforces what is reported in manual detections and the way that a machine can do it.
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16
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Li P, Jeong H. The social brain of language: grounding second language learning in social interaction. NPJ SCIENCE OF LEARNING 2020; 5:8. [PMID: 32595983 PMCID: PMC7305321 DOI: 10.1038/s41539-020-0068-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
For centuries, adults may have relied on pedagogies that promote rote memory for the learning of foreign languages through word associations and grammar rules. This contrasts sharply with child language learning which unfolds in socially interactive contexts. In this paper, we advocate an approach to study the social brain of language by grounding second language learning in social interaction. Evidence has accumulated from research in child language, education, and cognitive science pointing to the efficacy and significance of social learning. Work from several recent L2 studies also suggests positive brain changes along with enhanced behavioral outcomes as a result of social learning. Here we provide a blueprint for the brain network underlying social L2 learning, enabling the integration of neurocognitive bases with social cognition of second language while combining theories of language and memory with practical implications for the learning and teaching of a new language in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Li
- Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, Faculty of Humanities, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong China
| | - Hyeonjeong Jeong
- Graduate School of International Cultural Studies & Department of Human Brain Science, Institute of Development, Aging, and Cancer, Tohoku University, Aoba-ku, Sendai Japan
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17
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Danylkiv A, Krafnick AJ. A Meta-Analysis of Gray Matter Differences Between Bilinguals and Monolinguals. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:146. [PMID: 32390815 PMCID: PMC7191056 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Bilingualism is of great interest to the neuroscience of language, and understanding the anatomical changes associated with second language learning help inform theories of bilingual advantage across the lifespan. While the literature on structural differences between bilinguals and monolinguals is robust, relatively few studies of gray matter (GM) have directly compared bilinguals with monolinguals in a whole-brain analysis. Overall, this and heterogeneity of study samples and methodology have led to a lack of clear anatomical support for major theories. Here, we engage in an activation likelihood estimate (ALE) meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry (VBM) studies of GM for cases that directly compare bilingual and monolingual subjects in a whole-brain analysis. The analysis (sixteen foci, from ten contrasts across eight studies) resulted in one cluster located primarily within the anterior lobe of the right cerebellum. However, when the one pediatric study was removed, the analysis revealed no consistent results across the studies included in this meta-analysis. This suggests that for VBM studies of bilingual and monolingual adults there is considerable heterogeneity of results that complicate the understanding of the bilingual brain. Future studies will need to include larger, more well-defined samples and interrogate more fine-grained anatomical features such as cortical thickness and surface area in order to more fully examine the anatomical changes associated with bilingualism across the lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasiya Danylkiv
- Psychology Department, Dominican University, River Forest, IL, United States
| | - Anthony J Krafnick
- Psychology Department, Dominican University, River Forest, IL, United States
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18
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Functional lateralization of tool-sound and action-word processing in a bilingual brain. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY REPORT 2020. [DOI: 10.5114/hpr.2020.92718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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19
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Structural brain changes as a function of second language vocabulary training: Effects of learning context. Brain Cogn 2019; 134:90-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2018.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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20
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Bilingualism and "brain reserve": a matter of age. Neurobiol Aging 2019; 81:157-165. [PMID: 31280119 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
There is a lively debate whether bilingualism as a state of permanent cognitive control contributes to so-called brain reserve, thus delaying the onset of symptoms associated with neurodegeneration by up to 5 years. Here, we address this question in a large-scale (n = 399) population-based study. We compared the gray matter volume of monolinguals versus bilinguals in the left inferior frontal gyrus and inferior parietal lobule cortex and its modulation by biological age. Three core findings emerged: (1) Brain volume was systematically higher in bilinguals than monolinguals. (2) This difference disappeared at higher ages, and the slope of decline was steeper for bilinguals than monolinguals. (3) The volume difference between age groups disappeared in the inferior frontal gyrus at earlier ages than in the inferior parietal lobule. Thus, bilingualism might indeed contribute to brain reserve in older age, with posterior regions showing a particular resilience to atrophy and thus less necessity for functions to shift to anterior control regions.
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21
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Monaco E, Jost LB, Gygax PM, Annoni JM. Embodied Semantics in a Second Language: Critical Review and Clinical Implications. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:110. [PMID: 30983983 PMCID: PMC6449436 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of the sensorimotor system in second language (L2) semantic processing as well as its clinical implications for bilingual patients has hitherto been neglected. We offer an overview of the issues at stake in this under-investigated field, presenting the theoretical and clinical relevance of studying L2 embodiment and reviewing the few studies on this topic. We highlight that (a) the sensorimotor network is involved in L2 processing, and that (b) in most studies, L2 is differently embodied than L1, reflected in a lower degree or in a different pattern of L2 embodiment. Importantly, we outline critical issues to be addressed in order to guide future research. We also delineate the subsequent steps needed to confirm or dismiss the value of language therapeutic approaches based on embodiment theories as a complement of speech and language therapies in adult bilinguals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Monaco
- Laboratory for Cognitive and Neurological Sciences, Neurology Unit, Medicine Section, Department of Neuroscience and Movement Science, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Lea B. Jost
- Laboratory for Cognitive and Neurological Sciences, Neurology Unit, Medicine Section, Department of Neuroscience and Movement Science, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Pascal M. Gygax
- Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Marie Annoni
- Laboratory for Cognitive and Neurological Sciences, Neurology Unit, Medicine Section, Department of Neuroscience and Movement Science, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Neurology Unit, Fribourg Cantonal Hospital, Fribourg, Switzerland
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22
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Immersive Virtual Reality as an Effective Tool for Second Language Vocabulary Learning. LANGUAGES 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/languages4010013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Learning a second language (L2) presents a significant challenge to many people in adulthood. Platforms for effective L2 instruction have been developed in both academia and the industry. While real-life (RL) immersion is often lauded as a particularly effective L2 learning platform, little is known about the features of immersive contexts that contribute to the L2 learning process. Immersive virtual reality (iVR) offers a flexible platform to simulate an RL immersive learning situation, while allowing the researcher to have tight experimental control for stimulus delivery and learner interaction with the environment. Using a mixed counterbalanced design, the current study examines individual differences in L2 performance during learning of 60 Mandarin Chinese words across two learning sessions, with each participant learning 30 words in iVR and 30 words via word–word (WW) paired association. Behavioral performance was collected immediately after L2 learning via an alternative forced-choice recognition task. Our results indicate a main effect of L2 learning context, such that accuracy on trials learned via iVR was significantly higher as compared to trials learned in the WW condition. These effects are reflected especially in the differential effects of learning contexts, in that less successful learners show a significant benefit of iVR instruction as compared to WW, whereas successful learners do not show a significant benefit of either learning condition. Our findings have broad implications for L2 education, particularly for those who struggle in learning an L2.
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23
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Beyond volume: A surface-based approach to bilingualism-induced grey matter changes. Neuropsychologia 2018; 117:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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24
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Beyond bilingualism: multilingual experience correlates with caudate volume. Brain Struct Funct 2018; 223:3495-3502. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-018-1695-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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25
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Berisha V, Gilton D, Baxter LC, Corman SR, Blais C, Brewer G, Ruston S, Hunter Ball B, Wingert KM, Peter B, Rogalsky C. Structural neural predictors of Farsi-English bilingualism. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2018; 180-182:42-49. [PMID: 29723828 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The neurobiology of bilingualism is hotly debated. The present study examines whether normalized cortical measurements can be used to reliably classify monolinguals versus bilinguals in a structural MRI dataset of Farsi-English bilinguals and English monolinguals. A decision tree classifier classified bilinguals with an average correct classification rate of 85%, and monolinguals with a rate of 71.4%. The most relevant regions for classification were the right supramarginal gyrus, left inferior temporal gyrus and left inferior frontal gyrus. Larger studies with carefully matched monolingual and bilingual samples are needed to confirm that features of these regions can reliably categorize monolingual and bilingual brains. Nonetheless, the present findings suggest that a single structural MRI scan, analyzed with measures readily available using default procedures in a free open-access software (Freesurfer), can be used to reliably predict an individual's language experience using a decision tree classifier, and that Farsi-English bilingualism implicates regions identified in previous group-level studies of bilingualism in other languages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Visar Berisha
- Department of Speech and Hearing Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; School of Electrical, Computer and Energy Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Davis Gilton
- School of Electrical, Computer and Energy Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Leslie C Baxter
- Barrow Neurological Institute and St. Joseph's Medical Center and Hospital, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA
| | - Steven R Corman
- The Hugh Downs School of Human Communication, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA
| | - Chris Blais
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Gene Brewer
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Scott Ruston
- The Hugh Downs School of Human Communication, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA
| | - B Hunter Ball
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Kimberly M Wingert
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Beate Peter
- Department of Speech and Hearing Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, MO 63101, USA
| | - Corianne Rogalsky
- Department of Speech and Hearing Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA.
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26
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Archila-Suerte P, Woods EA, Chiarello C, Hernandez AE. Neuroanatomical profiles of bilingual children. Dev Sci 2018; 21:e12654. [PMID: 29480569 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The goal of the present study was to examine differences in cortical thickness, cortical surface area, and subcortical volume between bilingual children who are highly proficient in two languages (i.e., English and Spanish) and bilingual children who are mainly proficient in one of the languages (i.e., Spanish). All children (N = 49) learned Spanish as a native language (L1) at home and English as a second language (L2) at school. Proficiency of both languages was assessed using the standardized Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery. Five-minute high-resolution anatomical scans were acquired with a 3-Tesla scanner. The degree of discrepancy between L1 and L2 proficiency was used to classify the children into two groups: children with balanced proficiency and children with unbalanced proficiency. The groups were comparable on language history, parental education, and other variables except English proficiency. Values of cortical thickness and surface area of the transverse STG, IFG-pars opercularis, and MFG, as well as subcortical volume of the caudate and putamen, were extracted from FreeSurfer. Results showed that children with balanced bilingualism had thinner cortices of the left STG, left IFG, left MFG and a larger bilateral putamen, whereas unbalanced bilinguals showed thicker cortices of the same regions and a smaller putamen. Additionally, unbalanced bilinguals with stronger foreign accents in the L2 showed reduced surface areas of the MFG and STS bilaterally. The results suggest that balanced/unbalanced bilingualism is reflected in different neuroanatomical characteristics that arise from biological and/or environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elizabeth A Woods
- Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Christine Chiarello
- Department of Psychology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
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27
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Antoniou M, Wright SM. Uncovering the Mechanisms Responsible for Why Language Learning May Promote Healthy Cognitive Aging. Front Psychol 2017; 8:2217. [PMID: 29326636 PMCID: PMC5736569 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the great challenges facing humankind in the 21st century is preserving healthy brain function in our aging population. Individuals over 60 are the fastest growing age group in the world, and by 2050, it is estimated that the number of people over the age of 60 will triple. The typical aging process involves cognitive decline related to brain atrophy, especially in frontal brain areas and regions that subserve declarative memory, loss of synaptic connections, and the emergence of neuropathological symptoms associated with dementia. The disease-state of this age-related cognitive decline is Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, which may cause older adults to lose their independence and rely on others to live safely, burdening family members and health care systems in the process. However, there are two lines of research that offer hope to those seeking to promote healthy cognitive aging. First, it has been observed that lifestyle variables such as cognitive leisure activities can moderate the risk of Alzheimer's disease, which has led to the development of plasticity-based interventions for older adults designed to protect against the adverse effects of cognitive decline. Second, there is evidence that lifelong bilingualism acts as a safeguard in preserving healthy brain function, possibly delaying the incidence of dementia by several years. In previous work, we have suggested that foreign language learning programs aimed at older populations are an optimal solution for building cognitive reserve because language learning engages an extensive brain network that is known to overlap with the regions negatively affected by the aging process. Here, we will outline potential future lines of research that may uncover the mechanism responsible for the emergence of language learning related brain advantages, such as language typology, bi- vs. multi-lingualism, age of acquisition, and the elements that are likely to result in the largest gains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Antoniou
- The MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour and Development, Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sarah M Wright
- The MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour and Development, Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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28
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Rossi E, Cheng H, Kroll JF, Diaz MT, Newman SD. Changes in White-Matter Connectivity in Late Second Language Learners: Evidence from Diffusion Tensor Imaging. Front Psychol 2017; 8:2040. [PMID: 29209263 PMCID: PMC5702476 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Morphological brain changes as a consequence of new learning have been widely established. Learning a second language (L2) is one such experience that can lead to rapid structural neural changes. However, still relatively little is known about how levels of proficiency in the L2 and the age at which the L2 is learned influence brain neuroplasticity. The goal of this study is to provide novel evidence for the effect of bilingualism on white matter structure in relatively proficient but late L2 learners who acquired the second language after early childhood. Overall, the results demonstrate a significant effect on white matter fractional anisotropy (FA) as a function of L2 learning. Higher FA values were found in a broad white matter network including the anterior thalamic radiation (ATR), the inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFOF), the Uncinate Fasciculus (UF), and the inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF). Moreover, FA values were correlated with age of L2 acquisition, suggesting that learning an L2, even past childhood, induces neural changes. Finally, these results provide some initial evidence that variability in the age of L2 acquisition has important consequences for neural plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Rossi
- Department of Psychology and Sociology, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, Pomona, CA, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
| | - Hu Cheng
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Judith F. Kroll
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
| | - Michele T. Diaz
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Sharlene D. Newman
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
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29
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Bilingualism modulates the white matter structure of language-related pathways. Neuroimage 2017; 152:249-257. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.02.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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30
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Kuhl PK, Stevenson J, Corrigan NM, van den Bosch JJF, Can DD, Richards T. Neuroimaging of the bilingual brain: Structural brain correlates of listening and speaking in a second language. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2016; 162:1-9. [PMID: 27490686 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2016.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Revised: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Diffusion tensor imaging was used to compare white matter structure between American monolingual and Spanish-English bilingual adults living in the United States. In the bilingual group, relationships between white matter structure and naturalistic immersive experience in listening to and speaking English were additionally explored. White matter structural differences between groups were found to be bilateral and widespread. In the bilingual group, experience in listening to English was more robustly correlated with decreases in radial and mean diffusivity in anterior white matter regions of the left hemisphere, whereas experience in speaking English was more robustly correlated with increases in fractional anisotropy in more posterior left hemisphere white matter regions. The findings suggest that (a) foreign language immersion induces neuroplasticity in the adult brain, (b) the degree of alteration is proportional to language experience, and (c) the modes of immersive language experience have more robust effects on different brain regions and on different structural features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia K Kuhl
- Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | - Jeff Stevenson
- Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | - Neva M Corrigan
- Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | | | - Dilara Deniz Can
- Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | - Todd Richards
- Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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31
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Liu H, Cao F. L1 and L2 processing in the bilingual brain: A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2016; 159:60-73. [PMID: 27295606 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2016.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Revised: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Neuroimaging studies investigating bilingual processes have produced controversial results in determining similarities versus differences between L1 and L2 neural networks. The current meta-analytic study was conducted to examine what factors play a role in the similarities and differences between L1 and L2 networks with a focus on age of acquisition (AOA) and whether the orthographic transparency of L2 is more or less transparent than that of L1. Using activation likelihood estimation (ALE), we found L2 processing involved more additional regions than L1 for late bilinguals in comparison to early bilinguals, suggesting L2 processing is more demanding in late bilinguals. We also provide direct evidence that AOA of L2 influences L1 processing through the findings that early bilinguals had greater activation in the left fusiform gyrus than late bilinguals during L1 processing even when L1 languages were the same in the two groups, presumably due to greater co-activation of orthography in L1 and L2 in early bilinguals. In addition, we found that the same L2 languages evoked different brain activation patterns depending on whether it was more or less transparent than L1 in orthographic transparency. The bilateral auditory cortex and right precentral gyrus were more involved in shallower-than-L1 L2s, suggesting a "sound-out" strategy for a more regular language by involving the phonological regions and sensorimotor regions to a greater degree. In contrast, the left frontal cortex was more involved in the processing of deeper-than-L1 L2s, presumably due to the increased arbitrariness of mapping between orthography and phonology in L2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengshuang Liu
- Division of Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 14 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637332, Singapore.
| | - Fan Cao
- Department of Communicative Sciences and Disorders, Michigan State University, 1026 Red Cedar Rd, Rm 104, East Lansing, MI 48823, United States.
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32
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Pliatsikas C, Chondrogianni V. Editorial: Learning a non-native language in a naturalistic environment: insights from behavioral and neuroimaging research. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1009. [PMID: 26236272 PMCID: PMC4505070 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Vicky Chondrogianni
- School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, University of Edinburgh Edinburgh, UK
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Olsen RK, Pangelinan MM, Bogulski C, Chakravarty MM, Luk G, Grady CL, Bialystok E. The effect of lifelong bilingualism on regional grey and white matter volume. Brain Res 2015; 1612:128-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Revised: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Kaiser A, Eppenberger LS, Smieskova R, Borgwardt S, Kuenzli E, Radue EW, Nitsch C, Bendfeldt K. Age of second language acquisition in multilinguals has an impact on gray matter volume in language-associated brain areas. Front Psychol 2015; 6:638. [PMID: 26106338 PMCID: PMC4458568 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous structural studies have established that experience shapes and reshapes the brain throughout a lifetime. The impact of early development, however, is still a matter of debate. Further clues may come from studying multilinguals who acquired their second language at different ages. We investigated adult multilinguals who spoke three languages fluently, where the third language was learned in classroom settings, not before the age of 9 years. Multilinguals exposed to two languages simultaneously from birth (SiM) were contrasted with multinguals who acquired their first two languages successively (SuM). Whole brain voxel based morphometry revealed that, relative to SuM, SiM have significantly lower gray matter volume in several language-associated cortical areas in both hemispheres: bilaterally in medial and inferior frontal gyrus, in the right medial temporal gyrus and inferior posterior parietal gyrus, as well as in the left inferior temporal gyrus. Thus, as shown by others, successive language learning increases the volume of language-associated cortical areas. In brains exposed early on and simultaneously to more than one language, however, learning of additional languages seems to have less impact. We conclude that – at least with respect to language acquisition – early developmental influences are maintained and have an effect on experience-dependent plasticity well into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anelis Kaiser
- Department of Social Psychology and Social Neuroscience, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern Switzerland
| | | | - Renata Smieskova
- Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel Switzerland
| | - Stefan Borgwardt
- Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel Switzerland
| | - Esther Kuenzli
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Basel, Basel Switzerland
| | | | - Cordula Nitsch
- Department of Biomedicine, Institute of Anatomy, University of Basel, Basel Switzerland
| | - Kerstin Bendfeldt
- Medical Image Analysis Centre, University Hospital Basel, Basel Switzerland
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Abstract
Recent studies suggest that learning and using a second language (L2) can affect brain structure, including the structure of white matter (WM) tracts. This observation comes from research looking at early and older bilingual individuals who have been using both their first and second languages on an everyday basis for many years. This study investigated whether young, highly immersed late bilinguals would also show structural effects in the WM that can be attributed to everyday L2 use, irrespective of critical periods or the length of L2 learning. Our Tract-Based Spatial Statistics analysis revealed higher fractional anisotropy values for bilinguals vs. monolinguals in several WM tracts that have been linked to language processing and in a pattern closely resembling the results reported for older and early bilinguals. We propose that learning and actively using an L2 after childhood can have rapid dynamic effects on WM structure, which in turn may assist in preserving WM integrity in older age.
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