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Hirschhorn R, Biderman D, Biderman N, Yaron I, Bennet R, Plotnik M, Mudrik L. Using virtual reality to induce multi-trial inattentional blindness despite trial-by-trial measures of awareness. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:3452-3468. [PMID: 38594442 PMCID: PMC11133062 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-024-02401-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Unconscious processing has been widely examined using diverse and well-controlled methodologies. However, the extent to which these findings are relevant to real-life instances of information processing without awareness is limited. Here, we present a novel inattentional blindness (IB) paradigm in virtual reality (VR). In three experiments, we managed to repeatedly induce IB while participants foveally viewed salient stimuli for prolonged durations. The effectiveness of this paradigm demonstrates the close relationship between top-down attention and subjective experience. Thus, this method provides an ecologically valid setup to examine processing without awareness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rony Hirschhorn
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, POB 39040, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel.
| | - Dan Biderman
- Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind, Brain, Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Natalie Biderman
- Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind, Brain, Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Itay Yaron
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, POB 39040, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Rotem Bennet
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Meir Plotnik
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, POB 39040, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Center of Advanced Technologies in Rehabilitation, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Liad Mudrik
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, POB 39040, 6997801, Tel Aviv, Israel
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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2
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Zher-Wen, Yu R. Unconscious integration: Current evidence for integrative processing under subliminal conditions. Br J Psychol 2023; 114:430-456. [PMID: 36689339 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Integrative processing is traditionally believed to be dependent on consciousness. While earlier studies within the last decade reported many types of integration under subliminal conditions (i.e. without perceptual awareness), these findings are widely challenged recently. This review evaluates the current evidence for 10 types of subliminal integration that are widely studied: arithmetic processing, object-context integration, multi-word processing, same-different processing, multisensory integration and 5 different types of associative learning. Potential methodological issues concerning awareness measures are also taken into account. It is concluded that while there is currently no reliable evidence for subliminal integration, this does not necessarily refute 'unconscious' integration defined through non-subliminal (e.g. implicit) approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zher-Wen
- Department of Management, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China.,Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore City, Singapore
| | - Rongjun Yu
- Department of Management, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
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3
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Handschack J, Rothkirch M, Sterzer P, Hesselmann G. No effect of attentional modulation by spatial cueing in a masked numerical priming paradigm using continuous flash suppression (CFS). PeerJ 2023; 11:e14607. [PMID: 36632138 PMCID: PMC9828280 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
One notion emerging from studies on unconscious visual processing is that different "blinding techniques" seem to suppress the conscious perception of stimuli at different levels of the neurocognitive architecture. However, even when only the results from a single suppression method are compared, the picture of the scope and limits of unconscious visual processing remains strikingly heterogeneous, as in the case of continuous flash suppression (CFS). To resolve this issue, it has been suggested that high-level semantic processing under CFS is facilitated whenever interocular suppression is attenuated by the removal of visuospatial attention. In this behavioral study, we aimed to further investigate this "CFS-attenuation-by-inattention" hypothesis in a numerical priming study using spatial cueing. Participants performed a number comparison task on a visible target number ("compare number to five"). Prime-target pairs were either congruent (both numbers smaller, or both larger than five) or incongruent. Based on the "CFS-attenuation-by-inattention" hypothesis, we predicted that reaction times (RTs) for congruent prime-target pairs should be faster than for incongruent ones, but only when the prime was presented at the uncued location. In the invisible condition, we observed no priming effects and thus no evidence in support of the "CFS-attenuation-by-inattention" hypothesis. In the visible condition, we found an inverse effect of prime-target congruency. Our results agree with the notion that the representation of CF-suppressed stimuli is fractionated, and limited to their basic, elemental features, thus precluding semantic processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Handschack
- Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Visual Perception Laboratory, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marcus Rothkirch
- Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Visual Perception Laboratory, Berlin, Germany
| | - Philipp Sterzer
- Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Visual Perception Laboratory, Berlin, Germany
| | - Guido Hesselmann
- Department of General and Biological Psychology, Psychologische Hochschule Berlin (PHB), Berlin, Germany
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Carruthers G, Carls‐diamante S, Huang L, Rosen M, Schier E. How to operationalise consciousness. AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/ajpy.12264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Linus Huang
- Department of Philosophy, University of California at San Diego, CA & Institute of European and American Studies, Academia Sinica, Taipei,
| | - Melanie Rosen
- Department of Culture and Society, Aarhus University, Australia,
| | - Elizabeth Schier
- Department of Psychology, Charles Sturt University, Port Macquarie, Australia and Department of Philosophy, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia,
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5
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Abir Y, Hassin RR. Getting to the heart of it: Multi-method exploration of nonconscious prioritization processes. Conscious Cogn 2020; 85:103005. [PMID: 32977241 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2020.103005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the determinants of consciousness is crucial for theories that see it as functionally adaptive, and for explaining how consciousness affects higher-level cognition. The invention of continuous flash suppression (CFS), a long-duration suppression technique, resulted in a proliferation of research into the process of prioritization for consciousness. We developed a new technique, repeated masked suppression (RMS), that facilitates the measurement of long suppression times, but relies on different visual principles. RMS enables a theoretical leap: It allows scientists to examine the central process of prioritization across different suppression methods. In five experiments (n = 282) we collected chronometric RMS and CFS data, finding that the previously reported face inversion effect and the face priority-dimension generalize beyond CFS. Our results validate the use of multi-method designs in the study of prioritization for consciousness. Furthermore, we show how RMS could be used online to reach diverse samples, previously beyond the reach of consciousness science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaniv Abir
- Psychology Department, Columbia University, USA
| | - Ran R Hassin
- Department of Psychology and The Federmann Center for the Study of Rationality, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.
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6
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Reflections on Eriksen's seminal essay on discrimination, performance and learning without awareness. Atten Percept Psychophys 2020; 83:546-557. [PMID: 32935288 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-020-02098-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Early in his career C.W. Eriksen published in Psychological Review what turned out to be a highly impactful critique on methods and findings on the topic of unconscious influences on discrimination and awareness. His incisive commentary on extant methodology employed at that time - especially the heavy dependence on subjective reports - clearly was heard by others moving forward, as evidenced by the subsequent, lively discussions within the literature concerning the very definition of the notion of unconscious processing. Of equal importance, Eriksen's paper provided an impetus for the development of more refined techniques for manipulating perceptual awareness and for measuring the consequences of those manipulations. My purpose in this essay is to ensure that Eriksen's seminal contributions concerning unconscious phenomena remain within the awareness of the many current investigators working on this popular topic.
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Roumani D, Moutoussis K. Invisible Adaptation: The Effect of Awareness on the Strength of the Motion Aftereffect. Perception 2020; 49:835-857. [PMID: 32605425 DOI: 10.1177/0301006620936853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The ability to process information despite the lack of perceptual awareness is one of the most fascinating aspects of the visual system. Such unconscious processing is often investigated using adaptation, where any presence of the former can be traced by its footprint on aftereffects following the latter. We have investigated the mechanisms of the motion aftereffect (MAE) using random dot displays of varying motion coherence as well as crowding to modulate both the physical as well as the perceptual strength of the adaptation stimulus. Perceptual strength was quantitatively measured as the performance in a forced-choice direction-discrimination task. A motion-nulling technique was used to quantitatively measure the strength of the MAE. We show that the strength of the dynamic MAE is independently influenced by both the physical stimulus strength as well as the subjective perceptual strength, with the effect of the former being more prominent than that of the latter. We further show that the MAE still persists under conditions of subthreshold perception. Our results suggest that perceptual awareness can influence the strength of visual processing, but the latter is not fully dependent on the former and can still take place at its partial or even total absence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daphne Roumani
- Cognitive Science Division, Department of Philosophy and History of Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Moutoussis
- Cognitive Science Division, Department of Philosophy and History of Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
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"Real-life" continuous flash suppression (CFS)-CFS with real-world objects using augmented reality goggles. Behav Res Methods 2018; 51:2827-2839. [PMID: 30430349 PMCID: PMC6877487 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-018-1162-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Continuous flash suppression (CFS) is a popular method for suppressing visual stimuli from awareness for relatively long periods. Thus far, this method has only been used for suppressing two-dimensional images presented on screen. We present a novel variant of CFS, termed “real-life” CFS, in which a portion of the actual immediate surroundings of an observer—including three-dimensional, real-life objects—can be rendered unconscious. Our method uses augmented reality goggles to present subjects with CFS masks to the dominant eye, leaving the nondominant eye exposed to the real world. In three experiments we demonstrated that real objects can indeed be suppressed from awareness for several seconds, on average, and that the suppression duration is comparable to that obtained using classic, on-screen CFS. As supplementary information, we further provide an example of experimental code that can be modified for future studies. This technique opens the way to new questions in the study of consciousness and its functions.
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9
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Baroni F, van Kempen J, Kawasaki H, Kovach CK, Oya H, Howard MA, Adolphs R, Tsuchiya N. Intracranial markers of conscious face perception in humans. Neuroimage 2017; 162:322-343. [PMID: 28882629 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.08.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigations of the neural basis of consciousness have greatly benefited from protocols that involve the presentation of stimuli at perceptual threshold, enabling the assessment of the patterns of brain activity that correlate with conscious perception, independently of any changes in sensory input. However, the comparison between perceived and unperceived trials would be expected to reveal not only the core neural substrate of a particular conscious perception, but also aspects of brain activity that facilitate, hinder or tend to follow conscious perception. We take a step towards the resolution of these confounds by combining an analysis of neural responses observed during the presentation of faces partially masked by Continuous Flash Suppression, and those responses observed during the unmasked presentation of faces and other images in the same subjects. We employed multidimensional classifiers to decode physical properties of stimuli or perceptual states from spectrotemporal representations of electrocorticographic signals (1071 channels in 5 subjects). Neural activity in certain face responsive areas located in both the fusiform gyrus and in the lateral-temporal/inferior-parietal cortex discriminated seen vs. unseen faces in the masked paradigm and upright faces vs. other categories in the unmasked paradigm. However, only the former discriminated upright vs. inverted faces in the unmasked paradigm. Our results suggest a prominent role for the fusiform gyrus in the configural perception of faces, and possibly other objects that are holistically processed. More generally, we advocate comparative analysis of neural recordings obtained during different, but related, experimental protocols as a promising direction towards elucidating the functional specificities of the patterns of neural activation that accompany our conscious experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiano Baroni
- School of Psychological Sciences, Faculty of Biomedical and Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Australia; NeuroEngineering Laboratory, Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Jochem van Kempen
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; School of Psychological Sciences, Faculty of Biomedical and Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Australia
| | - Hiroto Kawasaki
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | | | - Hiroyuki Oya
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Matthew A Howard
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Ralph Adolphs
- Division of Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Naotsugu Tsuchiya
- School of Psychological Sciences, Faculty of Biomedical and Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Australia; Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience, Monash University, Australia; Decoding and Controlling Brain Information, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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10
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Rothkirch M, Hesselmann G. What We Talk about When We Talk about Unconscious Processing - A Plea for Best Practices. Front Psychol 2017; 8:835. [PMID: 28588539 PMCID: PMC5440724 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In this perspective article, we first outline the large diversity of methods, measures, statistical analyses, and concepts in the field of the experimental study of unconscious processing. We then suggest that this diversity implies that comparisons between different studies on unconscious processing are fairly limited, especially when stimulus awareness has been assessed in different ways. Furthermore, we argue that flexible choices of methods and measures will inevitably lead to an overestimation of unconscious processes. In the concluding paragraph, we briefly present solutions and strategies for future research. We make a plea for the introduction of "best practices," similar to previous attempts to constitute practicing standards for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Rothkirch
- Visual Perception Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Campus Charité Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin BerlinBerlin, Germany
| | - Guido Hesselmann
- Visual Perception Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Campus Charité Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin BerlinBerlin, Germany
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11
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Faivre N, Arzi A, Lunghi C, Salomon R. Consciousness is more than meets the eye: a call for a multisensory study of subjective experience. Neurosci Conscious 2017; 2017:nix003. [PMID: 30042838 PMCID: PMC6007148 DOI: 10.1093/nc/nix003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last 30 years, our understanding of the neurocognitive bases of consciousness has improved, mostly through studies employing vision. While studying consciousness in the visual modality presents clear advantages, we believe that a comprehensive scientific account of subjective experience must not neglect other exteroceptive and interoceptive signals as well as the role of multisensory interactions for perceptual and self-consciousness. Here, we briefly review four distinct lines of work which converge in documenting how multisensory signals are processed across several levels and contents of consciousness. Namely, how multisensory interactions occur when consciousness is prevented because of perceptual manipulations (i.e. subliminal stimuli) or because of low vigilance states (i.e. sleep, anesthesia), how interactions between exteroceptive and interoceptive signals give rise to bodily self-consciousness, and how multisensory signals are combined to form metacognitive judgments. By describing the interactions between multisensory signals at the perceptual, cognitive, and metacognitive levels, we illustrate how stepping out the visual comfort zone may help in deriving refined accounts of consciousness, and may allow cancelling out idiosyncrasies of each sense to delineate supramodal mechanisms involved during consciousness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Faivre
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Brain Mind Institute, Faculty of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Geneva, Switzerland
- Centre d’Economie de la Sorbonne, CNRS UMR 8174, Paris, France
| | - Anat Arzi
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Claudia Lunghi
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council (CNR), Pisa, Italy
| | - Roy Salomon
- Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
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12
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Faivre N, Salomon R, Vuillaume L, Blanke O. Numerical Priming Between Touch and Vision Depends on Tactile Discrimination. Perception 2015; 45:114-24. [PMID: 26562854 DOI: 10.1177/0301006615599129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Although the interaction between vision and touch is of crucial importance for perceptual and bodily self-consciousness, only little is known regarding the link between conscious access and tactile processing. Here, we tested whether the numerical encoding of tactile stimuli depends on conscious discrimination. On each trial, participants received between zero and three taps at low, medium, or high intensity and had to enumerate the number of visual items subsequently presented as a visual target. We measured tactovisual numerical priming, that is, the modulation of reaction times according to the numerical distance between the visual target and tactile prime values. While numerical priming and repetition priming were respectively elicited by high and medium intensity stimuli, no effect was found for low intensity stimuli that were not discriminable. This suggests that numerical priming between touch and vision depends on tactile discrimination. We discuss our results considering recent advances in unconscious visual numerical priming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Faivre
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, SwitzerlandCenter for Neuroprosthetics, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Roy Salomon
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, SwitzerlandCenter for Neuroprosthetics, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Laurène Vuillaume
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, SwitzerlandCenter for Neuroprosthetics, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Olaf Blanke
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, SwitzerlandCenter for Neuroprosthetics, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, SwitzerlandDepartment of Neurology, University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland
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13
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno G Breitmeyer
- Department of Psychology & Center of Neuro-engineering and Cognitive Science, University of Houston, USA.
| | | | - Michael Niedeggen
- Experimental Psychology and Neuropsychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
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14
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Hesselmann G, Moors P. Definitely maybe: can unconscious processes perform the same functions as conscious processes? Front Psychol 2015; 6:584. [PMID: 25999896 PMCID: PMC4421938 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Hassin recently proposed the “Yes It Can” (YIC) principle to describe the division of labor between conscious and unconscious processes in human cognition. According to this principle, unconscious processes can carry out every fundamental high-level cognitive function that conscious processes can perform. In our commentary, we argue that the author presents an overly idealized review of the literature in support of the YIC principle. Furthermore, we point out that the dissimilar trends observed in social and cognitive psychology, with respect to published evidence of strong unconscious effects, can better be explained by the way how awareness is defined and measured in both research fields. Finally, we show that the experimental paradigm chosen by Hassin to rule out remaining objections against the YIC principle is unsuited to verify the new default notion that all high-level cognitive functions can unfold unconsciously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Hesselmann
- Visual Perception Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Pieter Moors
- Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, University of Leuven (KU Leuven) , Leuven, Belgium
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15
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