On the Measurement of Procrastination: Comparing Two Scales in Six European Countries

Procrastination and risky health behaviors: a possible way to nurture health promotion among young adults in Italy

Background

The study's main objectives were to evaluate the distribution of levels of procrastination and its relationship with sleep quality, smoking status, alcohol consumption, and skipping breakfast, as a proxy measure of an unhealthy dietary pattern, among Italian university students.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted at the "Magna Græcia" University of Catanzaro in the Southern part of Italy, using stratified random sampling techniques. Eligible students were sent an anonymous online survey aimed at assessing sociodemographic characteristics, procrastination levels using the Pure Procrastination Scale, sleep quality using Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, smoking status, alcohol consumption using WHO's Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Tool, and breakfast habits.

Results

The study included 518 participants with a mean age of 23 year. More than half of the sample was enrolled in medicine or life science majors and the procrastination mean score was 15 (±5.9 SD). Being procrastinators was significantly more frequently among students who were poor sleepers, hazardous alcohol consumers and breakfast skippers. When analyzing the clustering of risky behaviors, it was found that as the number of risky behaviors increased, the procrastination score exhibited an exponential increase.

Conclusion

The study findings showed that university students who engage in procrastination tend to adopt risky health behaviors. The data gathered could be useful to derive targeted interventions aimed at groups more exposed to harmful health behaviors and to encourage institutional policies to promote healthy lifestyles within universities. Universities can act as hubs for cultivating a culture of well-being and promoting a healthy environment.

Postponing sleep after a stressful day: Patterns of stress, bedtime procrastination, and sleep outcomes in a daily diary approach

Sleep problems and stress are common among students and are associated with negative effects on academic performance as well as mental and physical health risks, but studies exploring mediating factors between stress and sleep on a daily basis are scarce. This study aimed to investigate the relationship of daily stress, Bedtime procrastination (BP) (i.e., postponing bedtime without external reasons), and sleep outcomes controlling for trait factors such as self-control. N = 96 students at a German university (M = 22.2 years, SD = 4.0) wore a sleep-tracking wearable (Fitbit Charge HR) for two weeks to assess sleep duration and to calculate the gap between the intended time to go to sleep and the objectively measured time of falling asleep. Stress, intended time to go to sleep, and sleep quality were assessed via daily diaries. Established questionnaires were used to measure trait self-control, trait BP, and smartphone addiction. Multilevel analyses indicated that more stress experienced during the day was associated with more BP (b = 2.32, p = 0.008), shorter sleep duration (b = -3.46, p = 0.003), and lower sleep quality (b = 1.03, p = 0.005) after controlling for several trait factors. The association of daily stress with sleep outcomes (quality and duration) was partly mediated by BP. Our findings indicate that BP might be one factor that contributes to stress-linked decreases in sleep duration and quality. Potential reasons for stress-related later time to fall asleep-like higher physiological arousal or stress-related worries-should be investigated in future studies.

Assessing Between- and Within-Person Reliabilities of Items and Scale for Daily Procrastination: A Multilevel and Dynamic Approach

Intensive longitudinal data (ILD) has been collected to capture the dynamic fluctuations of procrastination; however, researchers have typically measured daily procrastination by modifying trait measures (e.g., adding a time reference "today") without adequately testing their reliabilities. The main purpose of this study was to use an advanced approach, dynamic structural equation modeling, to assess the between- and within-person reliabilities of a widely used six-item measure of daily procrastination. A total of 252 participants completed retrospective measures of various types of trait procrastination and daily measures of procrastination over 34 consecutive days. The results showed that the entire scale for daily procrastination and five of its six items had high between- and within-person reliabilities, but one item had much lower reliabilities, suggesting that this item may be inappropriate in everyday contexts. Furthermore, we found moderate to strong associations between the latent trait factor of procrastination and trait measures of procrastination. In addition, we identified substantial between-person variation in person-specific reliabilities and explored its relevant factors. Overall, this study assessed the reliabilities of a daily measure of procrastination, which facilitated future studies to obtain more reliable and consistent results and to better estimate the reliability of ILD.

Procrastination Mediates the Relationship between Problematic TikTok Use and Depression among Young Adults

Background: Although the prevalence of depression has increased significantly in recent years, especially in the young adult population, little is known about its causes and risk factors. The study aims to examine the mediating role of TikTok use in the relationships between procrastination and depression in young adults. Methods: A sample of 448 adults, ranging in age from 18 to 35 years (M = 24.45, SD = 3.76), including 214 men (48%), participated in the study. The cross-sectional survey consists of a modified Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale (BFAS) to assess problematic TikTok use (PTTU), the Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS) for procrastination measurement, and the nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) for screening depression symptoms. Results: The independent samples t-test indicates that emerging adults (ages ranging between 18 and 25 years) have more severe depression symptoms than young adults (26-35 years old). Gender differences were not found for procrastination, PTTU, and depression symptoms. Positive correlations were found between procrastination, PTTU, and depression symptoms. PTTU plays a mediating role in the associations between procrastination and depression. Conclusions: Both procrastination and PTTU treatment should be prioritized in the prevention and intervention programs for improving mental health among young adults. Some effective therapeutic methods are recommended.

Spanish validation of the pure procrastination scale: dimensional structure, internal consistency, temporal stability, gender invariance, and relationships with personality and satisfaction with life

The objective of the current study was to adapt and validate the pure procrastination scale (PPS) for the Spanish adult population. Procrastination can have numerous consequences in daily life, making it essential to have reliable and valid instruments for measuring procrastination. Thus, this study was conducted to address this need. The sample consisted of 596 adults aged 18-83 years (M = 35.25, SD = 13.75). In addition to the PPS, participants completed two procrastination measures, namely the irrational procrastination scale and the decisional procrastination questionnaire, alongside the Big Five inventory and the satisfaction with life scale. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure of the PPS. The examination of the reliability of scores in terms of internal consistency and temporal stability showed satisfactory results for the PPS scores. Moreover, gender invariance was observed at the scalar level. Finally, the PPS scores correlated with other measures of procrastination, personality traits, and satisfaction with life in the expected direction and magnitude. In conclusion, the Spanish PPS offers valid and reliable scores when administered to adult population.

Perfectionism and alcohol-related problems: The role of procrastination

OBJECTIVE

College drinking is a significant individual and societal problem, and thus, identifying risk factors to alcohol-related problems has been an important line of inquiry. Adding to this rich literature, the current study examined whether perfectionism dimensions were associated with alcohol-related problems and whether a poor self-regulation process linked these associations.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 410 university students completed measures pertaining to perfectionism, procrastination, and negative consequences of alcohol use.

METHODS

Parallel mediation models were tested.

RESULTS

There was support for an indirect effect in the association between perfectionistic concerns and alcohol-related problems through susceptibility to temptation but not through pure procrastination or irrational procrastination. Perfectionistic strivings dimension was not associated with alcohol-related problems and this relation was not mediated by any procrastination dimensions.

CONCLUSIONS

Building internal resources to better resist immediately gratifying yet long-run detrimental behavioral habits is important, especially so for highly self-critical students.

StudiCare procrastination - Randomized controlled non-inferiority trial of a persuasive design-optimized internet- and mobile-based intervention with digital coach targeting procrastination in college students

BACKGROUND

Academic procrastination is widespread among college students. Procrastination is strongly negatively correlated with psychological well-being, thus early interventions are needed. Internet- and mobile-based cognitive behavioral therapy (iCBT) could provide a low-threshold treatment option. Human guidance seems to be a decisive mechanism of change in iCBT. Persuasive design optimization of iCBT and guidance by a digital coach might represent a resource-saving alternative. The study evaluated the non-inferiority of a digital coach in comparison to human guidance with regard to the primary outcome procrastination.

METHODS

The iCBT StudiCare procrastination was optimized by principles of the Persuasive System Design (PSD). A total of 233 college students were randomly assigned to either StudiCare procrastination guided by a digital coach (intervention group, IG) or by a human eCoach (control group, CG). All participants were assessed at baseline, 4-, 8- and 12-weeks post-randomization. Symptom change and between-group differences were assessed with latent growth curve models and supported by effect size levels. The non-inferiority margin was set at Cohen's d = - 0.3.

RESULTS

The primary outcome procrastination measured by the Irrational Procrastination scale (IPS) significantly decreased across groups (γ = - 0.79, p < .001, Cohen's d = -0.43 to -0.89) from baseline to 12-weeks post-randomization. There were no significant differences between groups (γ = -0.03, p = .84, Cohen's d = -0.03 to 0.08). Regarding symptoms of depression, no significant time x group effect was found (γ = 0.26, p = .09; Cohen's d = -0.15 to 0.21). There was also no significant time x group effect on the improvement of symptoms of anxiety (γ = 0.25, p = .09). However, Cohen's ds were above the non-inferiority margin 8-weeks (Cohen's d = 0.51) and 12-weeks post-randomization (Cohen's d = 0.37), preferring the CG. Of the IG, 34% and of the CG, 36% completed 80% of the modules.

CONCLUSIONS

The PSD optimized version of StudiCare procrastination is effective in reducing procrastination. The digital coach was not inferior to human guidance. Guidance by a digital coach in iCBT against procrastination for college students could be a resource-saving alternative to human guidance.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The trial was registered at the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform via the German Clinical Trial Register (ID: DRKS00025209, 30/04/2021).

Development and psychometric evaluation of nurses' health-related procrastination scale

There is no valid scale to measure health related procrastination, especially in nurses. This study was conducted to design and assess the psychometric properties of the health-related procrastination scale in nurses. This exploratory mixed method study was conducted between April 2017 and May 2019. The design and psychometric assessment of the nurses' health-related procrastination scale (NHRPS) was carried out through quantitative and qualitative phases. In the qualitative phase, nurses were interviewed and a review of literature was carried out to generate the items. In the quantitative phase, the scale validity was evaluated using the face, content and construct validity and its reliability was evaluated through the Cronbach's alpha, McDonald's omega, intra-class correlation coefficient, standard error of measurement, minimal detectable changes. The results of the exploratory factor analysis showed that, with 29 items and five factors, the NHRPS explains 54.81% of the variance in NHRPS. The results of confirmatory factor analysis also confirmed the final fit of model with five factors (RAMSEA: 0.08, CMIN/DF: 2.42, NFI: 0.92, PNFI: 0.83, CFI: 0.95, IFI: 0.95, RFI: 0.91, SRMR: 0.074). The Cronbach's alpha of the scale was 0.947, its intra-class correlation coefficient was 0.944, the Half-fold consistency coefficient was 0.970 and Omega internal consistency coefficient was 0.96. The NHRPS has good psychometric properties. This scale is suitable for research purposes, especially to plan for nurses' health promotion.

A Lack of Focus, Not Task Avoidance, Makes the Difference: Work Routines in Procrastinators and Non-Procrastinators

Procrastination may be seen as the outcome of a learning history of delaying the onset of task execution and its completion, both in terms of time and effort. In this study, we examined the performance of 55 university students who carried out two writing tasks consisting of summarizing two academic papers, each within a different time slot (i.e., five vs. three days to complete). The two assignments were part of the class activity and were perceived by participants as homogeneous in terms of text appreciation and difficulty, therefore making the two conditions comparable. The Pure Procrastination Scale was used to categorize subjects as high and low procrastinators, and to compare their performances. Results show that students who report more procrastination behaviors tend to increase their productivity as the deadline approaches, while low procrastinators are more productive throughout the time at their disposal, with peak activity during the intermediate day. Such a strategy was consistent across two deadlines (five vs. three days), and the difference between the two subgroups can be ascribed to the task-oriented coping style, which seems to be lacking in high-procrastinators.

Delay of Dental Care: An Exploratory Study of Procrastination, Dental Attendance, and Self-Reported Oral Health

Delay of dental care is a problem for dental public health. The present study explored the relationship between procrastination and dental attendance, focusing on delay in seeking dental care. This hypothetical relation was compared to other avoidance-related factors affecting dental attendance. In addition, an inquiry into the reasons for delaying dental care was conducted. Students (n = 164) answered an internet-based questionnaire on socio-demographic factors, dental health, dental attendance, delay of dental care, reasons for the delay, procrastination (IPS), dental anxiety (MDAS), perceived stress (PSS) and oral health self-efficacy (OHSES). The study found no significant relation between procrastination and delay in dental care. However, procrastination was related differently to past, present, and future dental attendance and seemed to relate to oral health behavior. Delay of dental care was associated with higher dental anxiety and lower oral health self-efficacy. The cost of dental care was the most frequently given reason for the delay of dental care. Further research on the delay of dental care and dental attendance is warranted in understanding the behavior, implementing interventions, and improving the utilization of public dental care.

The ABC of academic procrastination: Functional analysis of a detrimental habit

Academic procrastination - habitually delaying work with academic tasks to the extent that the delays become detrimental to performance, wellbeing, and health - represents a substantial personal, systemic, and societal problem. Still, efforts to prevent and reduce it are surprisingly scarce and often offered as treatment regimens rather than preventive efforts. Based on the principles of functional analysis and a broad examination of factors that are important for academic procrastinatory behaviors, this paper aims to describe a strategy for analyzing individual controlling conditions for procrastination and give parallel advice on how to change those controlling conditions. Both are ideographic, allowing for individual and dynamic analyses of factors responsible for instigating and maintaining procrastination, as well as tailor-made remedies that address controlling conditions in preventive and curative efforts to reduce procrastination. Although functional analysis integrates well with important research findings in the procrastination field, this approach suggests new criteria for identifying procrastinatory behaviors and an alternative model for analyzing their control conditions. We conclude that a functional approach may supplement procrastination research and efforts to prevent and alleviate this detrimental habit.

I’ll Do It – After One More Scroll: The Effects of Boredom Proneness, Self-Control, and Impulsivity on Online Procrastination

Procrastination is a common phenomenon. With the increasing ubiquity of new media, research has started to investigate the ways in which these technologies are used as alternatives to task engagement. This paper extends the literature by examining procrastinatory uses of social media, instant messaging, and online shopping with respect to boredom proneness, self-control, and impulsivity among German and Turkish samples. Regression analyses revealed that boredom proneness, self-control, and the perseverance facet of impulsivity are especially significant predictors of online procrastination in both samples. The results between the two studies differ in terms of impulsivity. The findings of this paper highlight the thus far understudied role of boredom proneness and various aspects of impulsivity in online procrastination, and demonstrate that social media procrastination, instant messaging procrastination, and shopping procrastination tendencies likely have distinct underlying mechanisms.

Procrastination Among University Students: Differentiating Severe Cases in Need of Support From Less Severe Cases

Procrastination refers to voluntarily postponing an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse off for this delay, and students are considered to be especially negatively affected. According to estimates in the literature, at least half of the students believe procrastination impacts their academic achievements and well-being. As of yet, evidence-based ideas on how to differentiate severe from less severe cases of procrastination in this population do not exist, but are important in order to identify those students in need of support. The current study recruited participants from different universities in Sweden to participate in an anonymous online survey investigating self-rated levels of procrastination, impulsivity, perfectionism, anxiety, depression, stress, and quality of life. Furthermore, diagnostic criteria for pathological delay (PDC) as well as self-report items and open-ended questions were used to determine the severity of their procrastination and its associated physical and psychological issues. In total, 732 participants completed the survey. A median-split on the Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS) and the responses to the PDC were used to differentiate two groups; "less severe procrastination" (PPS ≤ 2.99; n = 344; 67.7% female; M age = 30.03; SD age = 9.35), and "severe procrastination" (PPS ≥ 3.00; n = 388; 66.2% female; M age = 27.76; SD age = 7.08). For participants in the severe group, 96-97% considered procrastination to a problem, compared to 42-48% in the less severe group. The two groups also differed with regard to considering seeking help for procrastination, 35-38% compared to 5-7%. Participants in the severe group also reported more problems of procrastination in different life domains, greater symptoms of psychological issues, and lower quality of life. A thematic analysis of the responses on what physical issues were related to procrastination revealed that these were characterized by stress and anxiety, e.g., tension, pain, and sleep and rest, while the psychological issues were related to stress and anxiety, but also depression, e.g., self-criticism, remorse, and self-esteem. The current study recommends the PPS to be used as an initial screening tool, while the PDC can more accurately determine the severity level of procrastination for a specific individual.

Past Negative Consequences of Unnecessary Delay as a Marker of Procrastination

Standard definitions of procrastination underscore the irrational nature of this habit, a critical criterion being that the procrastinating individual delays despite expecting to be worse off for the delay. However, an examination of more than 175 items in 18 procrastination scales reveals that they do not address such a forward-looking criterion. Consequently, scales run the risk of not separating maladaptive and irrational delays from other forms of delay. We propose that forward-looking considerations may not be the best way of operationalizing the irrationality involved in procrastination and argue that scales should instead focus on past negative consequences of unnecessary delay. We suggest a new scale to measure such procrastination-related negative consequences and demonstrate that this scale, used separately or combined with established procrastination scales, performs better in predicting negative states and correlates to procrastination than established scales. The new scale seems to be helpful in separating trivial forms of unnecessary delay from maladaptive forms and hence represents a potentially valuable tool in research and clinical/applied efforts.

Rational and Irrational Beliefs in Understanding Academic Procrastination

Recently, along with the advancement of academic procrastination research, scholars have made tremendous efforts to understand different aspects of this construct, including its different forms, causes, correlated variables and consequences. Previous studies have noted that irrational beliefs were associated with procrastination, yet limited research has been conducted on this issue, particularly considering different forms of academic procrastination. The present study achieved two goals: a validation of the Rational and Irrational Beliefs on Procrastination (RIBP) scale and a test of the potential explanatory role of such beliefs in different forms of procrastination. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed the validity of the two-factor RIBP scale. Hierarchical linear models were performed on each form of procrastination score in males and females separately. The two forms of procrastination exhibited different relation patterns to rational/irrational beliefs in different gender groups. Implications of the findings were discussed.

Psychometric Properties of the Chinese Irrational Procrastination Scale: Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance Across Gender

The present paper reports on the preliminary validation of a Chinese version of Steel's Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS). To this end, the nine items of the IPS were translated into Chinese and data were collected from a sample of 2,361 mainland Chinese college students. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the dimensional structure of the IPS, and multigroup CFA (MG CFA) was carried out to evaluate the measurement invariance across gender. Results revealed that the Chinese IPS had adequate internal consistency reliability, adhered to the one-factor structure, and exhibited strong or scalar invariance across the two gender subgroups, thereby providing support for the internal construct validity of the scale. Additionally, the IPS scores were found to be strongly and negatively related to the Conscientiousness personality trait while showing weak correlations with the other traits, which provided some support for the convergent and divergent validity of the Chinese IPS. Study limitations and future research directions (e.g., expanding the empirical evidence for the scale's criterion-related validity) are discussed.

Pure Procrastination Scale e Irrational Procrastination Scale: Validation of a Brazilian Version

Abstract This study aimed to adapt and validate the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS) and Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS) for Brazilian Portuguese. Therefore, 2666 university students were invited to participate in the study (M = 26.08; SD = 6.6; 77% female). The factorial structures were analyzed through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. The validity was investigated through Pearson’s correlations between the subscales of the Academic Procrastination Questionnaire ─ Negative Consequences and DASS-21. The reliability of the scales and their factors were evaluated through Cronbach’s alpha. The results indicated a one-dimensional IPS structure and a three-factor solution with a higher-order factor for PPS. Significant correlations were found between the IPS and PPS with the other measurements, revealing concurrent and convergent validity for both scales. The instruments showed good internal consistency, with alphas ranging from 0.80 to 0.91.

Perceived Stress and Internet Addiction Among Chinese College Students: Mediating Effect of Procrastination and Moderating Effect of Flow

Perceived stress, Internet addiction and procrastination are common issues among college students. Based on the Compensatory Internet Use (CIU) model and emotion regulation theory, this study aims to explore two possible mechanisms for the connection between perceived stress and Internet addiction: mediating effect of procrastination and moderating effect of flow experience on the Internet. Cross-sectional design and questionnaire survey were used in this study. Data were collected from 446 college students who voluntarily completed self-reporting of perceived stress, internet addiction, procrastination and flow. Potential relationship structure and moderation model between variables was calculated during the process. The results revealed that there were significant associations among perceived stress, Internet addiction, procrastination and flow. The results also showed that procrastination plays a mediating role between perceptual stress and Internet addiction, flow plays a moderating role between them. The results emphasized the importance of the intention behind college students' overuse of the Internet. These results also provided a perspective of finding the possible causes of Internet addiction in college students, that is, individuals use the Internet to avoid stress and procrastinate, and the mobile experience on the Internet also affects the process.

A Rasch Analysis of the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS)

The present study analyses the psychometric properties of the irrational procrastination scale (IPS; Steel, 2002, 2010) in a sample of United States college students using the Rasch modeling approach. Results showed that the IPS items had a high level of reliability, good content validity, structural validity, and substantive validity, and no differential item functioning (DIF) effects in terms of gender. The IPS was found to be unidimensional, supporting the originally proposed theoretical structure by Steel (2002, 2010). Finally, psychometric implications derived from the results and study limitations are discussed; recommendations for future investigations are also offered.

Do self-reports of procrastination predict actual behavior?

OBJECTIVES

Procrastination is typically assessed via self-report questionnaires. So far, only very few studies have examined actual procrastination behavior, providing inconclusive results regarding the real-life validity of self-reports in this domain. The present study aimed to examine for the first time whether participants' self-reported procrastination can predict their actual behavior on a real-life task.

METHODS

For that purpose, we assessed self-reported levels of procrastination [via the Pure Procrastination Scale, PPS] and actual procrastination behavior on a naturalistic task [i.e., having to send in an attendance sheet before a deadline] in 93 participants.

RESULTS

Results show that self-reports significantly predicted procrastination behavior. Analyses of underlying dimensions suggest that real-life procrastination can be the result of "voluntarily delaying planned actions," but can also have more passive causes such as "running out of time."

CONCLUSIONS

Comparing our results with the available literature suggests that PPS self-reports reflect a particularly valid tool to assess real-life procrastination behavior. Findings are discussed in the context of strategies and mechanisms that potential interventions may target in order to reduce procrastination.

Quality of life and procrastination in post-H1N1 narcolepsy, sporadic narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnia, a Swedish cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND

A cross-sectional study of health-related quality of life (HRQoL), procrastination and the relation to sleepiness, depression and fatigue in post-H1N1 narcolepsy type 1 (NT1), sporadic NT1 and idiopathic hypersomnia (IH).

PATIENTS/METHODS

Participants with NT1 and IH were enrolled from the Department of Neurology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital in Gothenburg (Sweden). All participants completed questionnaires about medication, employment, studies, transfer income, sleepiness, HRQoL, depression, fatigue and three questionnaires for procrastination.

RESULTS

Post-H1N1, sporadic NT1 and IH all scored higher than healthy controls on Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS), Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS), whereas EQ-5D-5L index and VAS was lower than for healthy individuals, but with no difference between groups. Post-H1N1 NT1 had a larger proportion of participants prescribed with sodium oxybate (44% vs. 9%, p = 0.003) and dexamphetamine (62% vs. 17%, p = 0.03) compared to sporadic NT1. The latter also in significantly higher doses than in sporadic NT1 (46 ± 12 vs. 25 ± 10 and 47.5 ± 21 mg, p < 0.0001). Post-H1N1 NT1 also had significantly higher scores on Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS), Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS) and Susceptibility to Temptation Scale (STS), indicating a higher degree of procrastination. Multivariate analysis showed that depression, and to some extent fatigue, were predictors in NT1 for both HRQoL and procrastination.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that health-related quality of life is impaired and tendency to procrastinate is higher in patients suffering from NT1 and both attributes can in part be explained by depressive symptoms. These findings highlight the impact of symptoms other than sleep and wakefulness regulation in patients with NT1.

Effect of Viewing Video Representation of the Urban Environment and Forest Environment on Mood and Level of Procrastination

A common problem among students is the problem of delaying important work activities, which is conceptualized as procrastination. Since procrastination can cause considerable costs for society, we would like to find a method to effectively alleviate the symptoms of this conditioning. It has been proven in an earlier study that staying in the forest environment increases vitality and reduces anxiety, and the negative state of these features can be associated with the intensification of procrastination symptoms. Therefore, it is likely that watching a forest video may decrease the probability or intensity of procrastination. To measure the impact of the forest environment on the level of procrastination of the subjects, a randomized experiment was carried out, in which the subjects watched in random order (on different days) one of two 15-min videos: one showing a walk in the forest area and one showing a walk in an urban environment (control). We measured the level of so-called 'fluid procrastination' including three aspects: 'lack of energy to do the work', 'inability to get to work' and 'pessimistic attitude to do the work' with a set of questions the respondents completed before and after the experiment. The results showed that one aspect of fluid procrastination ('pessimistic attitude to do the work') can be effectively lowered by watching a video showing the forest environment. In contrast, watching a video of an urban environment increased the procrastination levels for two other aspects of procrastination ('lack of energy to do the work', 'inability to get to work'). We also measured three other parameters before and after the experiment: mood state, restoration and vitality. Watching the video from forest area raised mood and restoration and watching the video from urban area, decreased mood, vitality and restoration. The study suggests that watching a video showing forest landscapes could be used as an effective remedy for problems related to procrastination among students.

Procrastination at the Core of Physical Activity (PA) and Perceived Quality of Life: A New Approach for Counteracting Lower Levels of PA Practice

Faced with the demonstrated need to engage in physical activity (PA), lack of time is the argument commonly used to justify low or non-existent levels of PA. Underlying this argument, the accomplishment of procrastination behaviour seems to be related to the less time dedicated to practicing PA and the low perception of the quality of life. With this in mind, the purpose of this study is to show that dedicating different amounts of time to PA affects the perceived quality of life and the widespread problem of procrastination. We hypothesise that greater time investment in PA is related to greater perceived quality of life and less procrastination. In all, 621 practitioners of PA (347 men, 274 women) between 18 and 83 years old (M = 35.43, SD = 14.45) filled out validated versions of the World Health Organization quality of life assessment (WHOQOL-BREF) and the Pure Procrastination Scale. Results showed that people who do enough PA have a more positive perception of the quality of life in the domains of physical and psychological health; this perception, in turn, is related to lower levels of procrastination. Likewise, socio-demographic characteristics such as gender and the main activity presented significant associations with various quality of life domains and procrastination. In sum, the benefits of improvements in quality of life and reductions in procrastination identified in this study are sensitive to the time spent on PA, which suggests that a strategy to promote the practice of PA would improve time management and, thus, counteract procrastination.

Wenn den Zappelphilipp die Aufschieberitis packt: Zusammenhänge zwischen ADHS-Symptomen und Prokrastination und mögliche Mediatoren

Zusammenfassung. Die Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit- / Hyperaktivitätsstörung (ADHS) scheint mit prokrastinierendem Verhalten in Verbindung zu stehen und beides kann den individuellen Bildungserfolg beeinträchtigen. Weitere Studien weisen zudem auf Zusammenhänge zwischen den beiden Konstrukten und Selbstkontrolle sowie Perfektionismus hin. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde anhand von zwei verschiedenen Stichproben ( N gesamt = 762) untersucht, ob Zusammenhänge zwischen ADHS-Symptomen und Prokrastination bestehen und ob diese Zusammenhänge durch Selbstkontrolle und Perfektionismus mediiert werden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen positive Assoziationen zwischen Prokrastination und den ADHS-Subskalen für beide Stichproben (Unaufmerksamkeit: r = .67 bzw. r = .66; Hyperaktivität / Impulsivität: r = .35 bzw. r = 0.22). Dabei wurden indirekte Effekte von der ADHS-Gesamtskala sowie den beiden Subskalen Unaufmerksamkeit und Hyperaktivität / Impulsivität auf Prokrastination über Selbstkontrolle deutlich. Zudem zeigte sich ein indirekter Effekt von Hyperaktivität / Impulsivität auf Prokrastination über sozial vorgeschriebenen Perfektionismus. Ein Teil des Zusammenhangs zwischen ADHS-Symptomen und Prokrastination kann demnach durch indirekte Effekte über dritte Konstrukte erklärt werden.

Effectiveness of an internet-based intervention for procrastination in college students (StudiCare Procrastination): Study protocol of a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Procrastination, defined as irrational and voluntary delaying of necessary tasks, is widespread and clinically relevant. Its high prevalence among college students comes with serious consequences for mental health and well-being of those affected. Research for proper treatment is still relatively scarce and treatment of choice seems to be cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness and acceptability of an internet- and mobile-based intervention (IMI) for procrastination based on CBT for college students.

METHODS

A two-armed randomized controlled trial with a calculated sample size of N = 120 participants with problematic procrastination behavior will be conducted. Students will be recruited in Germany, Austria and Switzerland via circular emails at 15+ cooperating universities in the framework of StudiCare, a well-established project that provides IMIs to college students for different health related issues. The intervention group will receive the e-coach guided 5-week IMI StudiCare Procrastination. A waitlist-control group will get access to the unguided IMI 12 weeks after randomization. Assessments will take place before as well as 6 and 12 weeks after randomization. Primary outcome is procrastination, measured by the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS). Secondary outcomes include susceptibility to temptation, depression, anxiety, wellbeing and self-efficacy as well as acceptability aspects such as intervention satisfaction, adherence and potential side effects. Additionally, several potential moderators as well as the potential mediators self-efficacy and susceptibility to temptation will be examined exploratorily. Data-analysis will be performed on intention-to-treat basis.

DISCUSSION

This study will contribute to the evidence concerning effectiveness and acceptability of an intervention for procrastination delivered via the internet. If it shows to be effective, StudiCare Procrastination could provide a low-threshold, cost-efficient way to help the multitude of students suffering from problems caused by procrastination.Trial registration: The trial is registered at the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform via the German Clinical Studies Trial Register (DRKS): DRKS00014321 (date of registration: 06.04.2018). In case of important protocol modifications, trial registration will be updated.Trial status: This is protocol version number 1, 11th December 2019. Recruitment started 9th of April 2018 and was completed 30th of November 2018. Assessment and intervention are still ongoing and will be completed by April 2019.

Assessing Procrastination

Abstract. The short form of the General Procrastination Scale (GPS-K; Klingsieck & Fries, 2012 ; Lay, 1986 ) is a reliable self-report scale measuring general procrastination. The presumed one-dimensional factor structure of the scale, however, has never been examined. Thus, the purposes of this representative study were to examine its dimensionality and factorial invariance across age and sex, and to provide norm values of the German general population. The GPS-K was administered to a representative community sample ( N = 2,527; age range 14–95 years). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted. To explore convergent validity, standardized scales of distress and life satisfaction were used. Measurement invariance across sex and age was tested. The CFA revealed an unsatisfactory model fit of the presumed unidimensional factor structure of the GPS-K. Therefore, a 5-item one-dimensional version of the scale was suggested (General Procrastination Scale – Screening; GPS-S). Correlations between GPS-S, distress and reduced life satisfaction provide evidence on its convergent validity. The one-dimensional GPS-S can be assumed to be scalar invariant across sex and for participants older than 29 years. The scale can be administered in only a few minutes providing an economic screening for research and practice.

Attenuated brain activity during error processing and punishment anticipation in procrastination - a monetary Go/No-go fMRI study

Procrastination is a self-regulatory failure in which people voluntarily but irrationally delay important tasks. Trait procrastination is estimated to affect 15-20% of the total population and leads to a significant decrease in performance, satisfaction with achievements, and quality of life. Procrastination is related to impulsivity and reduced executive control, especially in the domain of inhibition. Moreover, procrastinatory tendencies seem to increase with negative affect, suggesting impaired emotion regulation. The aim of this study was to investigate the neuronal mechanisms of inhibition, error processing, and behavioral control under pressure of punishment in procrastinators. Non-student subjects recruited to low (LP) and high procrastination (HP) groups performed an fMRI monetary Go/No-go task. HP showed significantly lower error-related activity in ACC than LP. There was also a significant group by condition interaction in the ACC and right DLPFC suggesting increase of control during the punishment condition in LP but not HP group. These results suggest that procrastinators have impaired error processing mechanisms which may add to the persistence of procrastination through difficulties in correction of faulty behaviors. Procrastination also seems to be related to a decreased ability to intensify self-control in more demanding situations and/or impaired coping in the context of negative situations.

Playing a video game is more than mere procrastination

Background

Procrastination is seen as a severe problem among young people, and many factors have been claimed to be associated with it, playing video games being one of them. One of the reasons why video games might be related to procrastination is their ability to offer instant gratification and feedback, while at the same time offer distractions from less tempting and rewarding tasks. It is not yet agreed on whether or not video game players are more prone towards procrastination and discounting of future rewards.

Method

Over 500 participants across two studies completed two surveys on video gaming habits, as well as a measurement of procrastination tendencies. In study 1 participants performed an experiential discounting task, while participants in study 2 performed the 5-trial adjusting delay discounting task, both tasks assessing preference for delayed larger rewards.

Results

In study 1, hours of videogaming was not significantly related to procrastination or the discount rate. In study 2, hours of videogaming was not strongly associated with procrastination and delay discounting either. However, when asked why they play, those answering to escape reality and to reduce stress had more problems of procrastination than those who play for entertainment, reward or social reasons. Overall, the association between procrastination and hours spent playing video games was weak but positive, r(513) = .122.

Discussion

Time spent enjoying and engaging in video gaming is done for various reasons, only for a few this is related to procrastination. By using only hypothetical payouts in the discounting tasks, the absence of a relationship between hours spent video gaming, procrastination and delayed gratification requires further investigation. However, playing video games is more than mere procrastination.

General and Life-Domain Procrastination in Highly Educated Adults in Israel

Procrastination is usually perceived as a general behavioral tendency, and was studied mostly in college students in academic settings. Recently there is a growing body of literature to support the study of procrastination in older adults and in different life-domains. Based on these advances in the literature, the present study examined procrastination in 430 highly educated adults in Israel. Findings showed that respondents reported significantly higher procrastination in maintaining health behaviors and spending leisure time rather in other life-domains. Forty percent of participants reported high procrastination in health behaviors, while only 9.5% reported this level of procrastination in parenting and 1% in the general tendency to procrastinate. Further findings suggested that 25% of respondents reported high procrastination in four or more life-domains, and 40%-in one to three life-domains. The general tendency to procrastinate was moderately associated with procrastination in finance, education, and career life-domains and weekly with other life-domains. Fourteen percent of participants reported that procrastination influenced their life the most in health behaviors, 12% in career and education and 11% in romance and family life. These initial findings contribute to the overall perspective of life-domain specificity of procrastination in adults, and emphasize the importance to further study and develop a life-span perspective.

Roles of Impulsivity, Motivation, and Emotion Regulation in Procrastination - Path Analysis and Comparison Between Students and Non-students

Procrastination – an irrational delay of intended actions despite expecting to be worse off – is a complex and non-homogenous phenomenon. Previous studies have found a number of correlates of procrastination, some of which seem to be particularly important. Impulsivity is closely connected to procrastination on behavioral, genetic, and neuronal levels. Difficulties in emotion regulation have also been shown to be strongly related to procrastination. Procrastination can also be considered as a motivation-based problem. To try to disentangle the connections of impulsivity, emotion regulation, and motivation to procrastination we collected data from over 600 subjects using multiple questionnaires (PPS – Pure Procrastination Scale; UPPSP – Impulsive Behavior Scale, ERQ – Emotion Regulation Questionnaire and MDT – Motivational Diagnostic Test). Structural equation modeling was performed to test several possible relationships between the measured variables. The effects of student status and age have also been investigated. The final path model was a directional model based on six explanatory variables and accounted for 70% of the variance in procrastination. Path analysis revealed that the strongest contributions to procrastination came from lack of value, delay discounting, and lack of perseverance, suggesting the involvement of motivation and impulsivity. The model also revealed the moderating role of expressive suppression between several aspects of impulsivity and procrastination. Close inspection of the paths’ weights suggests that there may be two partly competing strategies for dealing with impulsivity and negative emotions: either to suppress emotions and impulsive reactions or to react impulsively, discarding previous plans, and to procrastinate. Path invariance analysis showed the significant moderating roles of student status and age. Both in non-students and high-age groups, the path leading from suppression to procrastination was insignificant. This suggests that caution should be used in generalizing the results of studies carried out on students. These results support previous findings that procrastination may serve as a short-term mood regulation strategy. However, as the spectrum of the emotion regulation strategies included in the study was very limited, we conclude that future studies should seek more insight into the relationship between emotion regulation, self-control, and procrastination.

On the Behavioral Side of Procrastination: Exploring Behavioral Delay in Real-Life Settings

This paper examines how procrastinators behave differently from non-procrastinators in implementing intended behavior. By focusing on time-related attributes of behavior, we demonstrate in five studies (aggregated N = 965) that onset delay seems to be a preferred option for procrastinators in common daily situations. Thus, when an action possibility is available for intended behavior, procrastinators tend to delay behavior onset, both in actual behavior and in onset preferences, often instigating chains of events with negative consequences. We discuss possible mechanisms responsible for such delays and explore how such mechanisms generate and sustain dilatory behavior. We conclude that a better understanding of why behavioral delays occur in early phases of action implementation is of importance in understanding and preventing procrastination.

Treating Procrastination Using Cognitive Behavior Therapy: A Pragmatic Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Treatment Delivered via the Internet or in Groups

Procrastination is a common problem among university students, with at least half of the population reporting great difficulties initiating or completing tasks and assignments. Procrastination can have a negative impact on course grades and the ability to achieve a university degree, but can also lead to psychological distress. Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) is believed to reduce procrastination, but few studies have investigated its effectiveness in a regular clinical setting. The current study explored its effects using a pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered during 8 weeks as self-guided CBT via the Internet (ICBT) or as group CBT. In total, 92 university students with severe procrastination were included in the study (registered as a clinical trial on Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT02112383). Outcome measures on procrastination, depression, anxiety, and well-being were distributed at pre- and posttreatment as well as 6-month follow-up. An outcome measure of procrastination was administered weekly. Linear mixed and fixed effects models were calculated, along with improvement and deterioration rates. The results showed large within-group effect sizes on procrastination, Cohen's d of 1.29 for ICBT, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) [0.81, 1.74], and d of 1.24 for group CBT, 95% CI [0.76, 1.70], and small to moderate benefits for depression, anxiety, and well-being. In total, 33.7% were regarded as improved at posttreatment and 46.7% at follow-up. No differences between conditions were observed after the treatment period, however, participants in group CBT continued or maintained their improvement at follow-up, while participants in self-guided ICBT showed some signs of deterioration. The findings from the current study suggest that CBT might be an effective treatment for those struggling with severe procrastination, but that a group format may be better for some to sustain their benefits over time and that the clinical significance of the results need to be investigated further.

Ecological Assets and Academic Procrastination among Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Commitment to Learning

Academic procrastination is defined as a purposive delay of academic tasks that must be completed. Within the framework of the ecological model of resiliency, this study examined how ecological assets were related to academic procrastination among adolescents. Participants in the study were 577 adolescents (53.5% boys) from Shanghai, China. They completed measures of ecological assets, commitment to learning, and academic procrastination. Structural equation modeling revealed that, as predicted, ecological assets were negatively associated with academic procrastination. In addition, commitment to learning fully mediated the association between ecological assets and academic procrastination. Implications of the present findings are discussed.

Validation of the Spanish version of the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS)

The present study is centered in adapting and validating a Spanish version of the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS). The sample consists of 365 adults aged 18–77 years (M = 37.70, SD = 12.64). Participants were administered two measures of procrastination, the IPS and the Decisional Procrastination Questionnaire, as well as the Big Five Inventory, and the Satisfaction With Life Scale. First, the factor and replication analysis revealed that the internal structure of the scale is clearly one-dimensional, supporting the idea that IPS seems to measure general procrastination as a single trait. Second, the internal consistency is satisfactory as is the temporal stability of the IPS scores. Third, the correlations encountered between the IPS scores and other measures of procrastination, personality traits and satisfaction with life are all in the expected direction and magnitude. Finally, consistent with previous research, procrastination is related to age, with the youngest being the most procrastinating group. This study represents the first attempt in adapting and validating the IPS measure of procrastination into Spanish. Results suggest that the Spanish version of the IPS offers valid and reliable scores when applied to adult population.

Irrational Delay Revisited: Examining Five Procrastination Scales in a Global Sample

Scales attempting to measure procrastination focus on different facets of the phenomenon, yet they share a common understanding of procrastination as an unnecessary, unwanted, and disadvantageous delay. The present paper examines in a global sample (N = 4,169) five different procrastination scales - Decisional Procrastination Scale (DPS), Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS), Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS), Adult Inventory of Procrastination Scale (AIP), and General Procrastination Scale (GPS), focusing on factor structures and item functioning using Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Item Response Theory. The results indicated that The PPS (12 items selected from DPS, AIP, and GPS) measures different facets of procrastination even better than the three scales it is based on. An even shorter version of the PPS (5 items focusing on irrational delay), corresponds well to the nine-item IPS. Both scales demonstrate good psychometric properties and appear to be superior measures of core procrastination attributes than alternative procrastination scales.