Cognitive Investments in Academic Success: The Role of Need for Cognition at University

Creativity and productivity during the COVID-19 pandemic

This study explored impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on creativity and productivity and how personality variables moderated these impacts. Two online self-report surveys were conducted. 863 (spring 2020) and 421 (spring 2021) participants were asked how the corona crisis affected their creativity and productivity. In addition, personality variables, namely the Big Five (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism), as well as interpersonal trust, need for cognition, risk-taking, and life satisfaction, were assessed. As a result of the crisis, the group of participants appeared more creative in 2020, while no significant group effect of the pandemic was found for productivity. In 2021, however, the crisis had a negative impact on creativity and productivity. In 2020, predictors for an improved creativity were openness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and life satisfaction; predictors for improved productivity were conscientiousness, negative interpersonal trust, and life satisfaction. In 2021, only life satisfaction predicted improved creativity, while improved productivity was predicted by conscientiousness, negative neuroticism, and life satisfaction. At its beginning, the COVID-19 pandemic had, on average, a positive effect on creativity and a neutral one on productivity. Later, the impact turned negative on both creativity and productivity. Here, lower life satisfaction was particularly relevant.

A voxel-based morphometry study on gray matter correlates of need for cognition and exploratory information seeking

BACKGROUND

Need for cognition (NFC) represents interindividual differences in tendencies to engage and enjoy cognitive endeavors. Exploratory information seeking (EIS) refers to individual tendencies to attain cognitive stimulation through acquiring information related to consumer products or services out of curiosity.

METHODS

The current study aims to provide an in-depth investigation of the relationship between NFC and EIS and extend this relation to determine neuroanatomical correlates of NFC and EIS. This study proposed two central hypotheses: (1) NFC and EIS scores are positively correlated and (2) the gray matter volume (GMV) of brain regions implicated in motivation, valuation, and reward systems are positively associated with both NFC and EIS. Self-report and structural MRI data of 91 Singaporean Chinese participants were utilized for the study.

RESULTS

No statistically significant correlation was revealed between NFC and EIS scores. Neuroanatomical associations of the GMV of brain regions implicated in visuospatial, attentional, and reward processing with individual constructs of interest were explored. When examining NFC and EIS scores, larger GMV in the right pallidum and left fusiform gyrus was found in participants that reported higher levels of NFC (vs. lower NFC levels), larger GMV in the left precuneus in those with greater tendencies to engage in EIS (vs. lower EIS levels), and larger GMV of the left fusiform gyrus associated with greater endorsement of both NFC and EIS. When investigating the exploratory factor analysis-generated factors of NFC and EIS, similar patterns of associations were found between self-reported levels of agreement against factors and GMV of brain regions implicated.

CONCLUSIONS

Correlational analysis and exploratory factor analysis indicated the absence of a relationship between NFC and EIS. Additionally, voxel-based morphometry whole-brain analysis revealed neuroanatomical correlates of the GMV of brain regions implicated in visuospatial, attentional, and reward processing with NFC and EIS.

Cognitive effort investment: Does disposition become action?

Contrary to the law of less work, individuals with high levels of need for cognition and self-control tend to choose harder tasks more often. While both traits can be integrated into a core construct of dispositional cognitive effort investment, its relation to actual cognitive effort investment remains unclear. As individuals with high levels of cognitive effort investment are characterized by a high intrinsic motivation towards effortful cognition, they would be less likely to increase their effort based on expected payoff, but rather based on increasing demand. In the present study, we measured actual effort investment on multiple dimensions, i.e., subjective load, reaction time, accuracy, early and late frontal midline theta power, N2 and P3 amplitude, and pupil dilation. In a sample of N = 148 participants, we examined the relationship of dispositional cognitive effort investment and effort indices during a flanker and an n-back task with varying demand and payoff. Exploratorily, we examined this relationship for the two subdimensions cognitive motivation and effortful-self-control as well. In both tasks, effort indices were sensitive to demand and partly to payoff. The analyses revealed a main effect of cognitive effort investment for accuracy (n-back task), interaction effects with payoff for reaction time (n-back and flanker task) and P3 amplitude (n-back task) and demand for early frontal midline theta power (flanker task). Taken together, our results partly support the notion that individuals with high levels of cognitive effort investment exert effort more efficiently. Moreover, the notion that these individuals exert effort regardless of payoff is partly supported, too. This may further our understanding of the conditions under which person-situation interactions occur, i.e. the conditions under which situations determine effort investment in goal-directed behavior more than personality, and vice versa.

The relation between Self-Control, Need for Cognition and Action Orientation in secondary school students: A conceptual replication study

Self-Control can be defined as the self-initiated effortful process that enables individuals to resist temptation impulses. It is relevant for conducting a healthy and successful life. For university students, Grass et al. found that Need for Cognition as the tendency to engage in and enjoy thinking, and Action Orientation as the flexible recruitment of control resources in cognitively demanding situations, predict Self-Control. Further, Action Orientation partially mediated the relation between Need for Cognition and Self-Control. In the present conceptual replication study, we investigated the relations between Self-Control, Need for Cognition, and Action Orientation in adolescence (N = 892 9th graders) as a pivotal period for the development of self-control. We replicated the findings that Need for Cognition and Action Orientation predict Self-Control and that Action Orientation partially mediates the relation between Need for Cognition and Self-Control. In addition, Action Orientation moderates the relation between Need for Cognition and Self-Control. This result implies that in more action-oriented students Need for Cognition more strongly predicted Self-Control than in less action-oriented students. Our findings strengthen theoretical assumptions that Need for Cognition and Action Orientation are important cognitive and behavioral mechanisms that contribute to the successful exertion of Self-Control.

The effect of cognitive ability on academic achievement: The mediating role of self-discipline and the moderating role of planning

In this study, 572 secondary school students aged 15–18 years old stage were selected to study the effect of their cognitive ability and self-discipline and planning on academic achievement. Cognitive ability was classified into memory ability, representational ability, information processing ability, logical reasoning ability, and thinking conversion ability, and analyzed the effects of these five ability values on academic achievement. The mediating effect of self-discipline ability between cognitive ability and academic achievement was analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM), and the moderating role of planning in the mediating effect was analyzed using planning as a moderating variable. The results showed that cognitive ability can have a significant positive effect on academic achievement, while self-discipline plays a partially mediating role between cognitive ability and academic achievement, and the moderating effect of Planning is significant in the second half of the mediating effect, i.e., the effect of self-discipline on academic achievement changes as the level of planning increases, and the mediating effect is stronger in the condition of higher planning, and the mediating model with moderating effect holds.

Analysis of the effect of cognitive ability on academic achievement: Moderating role of self-monitoring

In this study, cognitive ability was classified into memory ability, representational ability, information processing ability, logical reasoning ability, and thinking conversion ability, and analyzed the effects of these five ability values on academic achievement. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the moderating effect of Self-monitoring between cognitive ability and Academic Achievement, using students' Self-monitoring as moderating variables. The results of the study showed that cognitive ability can significantly and positively affect academic achievement, while Self-monitoring can significantly moderate the effect of cognitive ability on academic performance, with a significant moderating effect on math subjects and English subjects among achievement subjects, and the higher the value of cognitive ability, the stronger the moderating effect.

A Question of Method and Subjective Beliefs

Abstract. Need for Cognition (NFC) describes the relatively stable intrinsic motivation to engage in cognitive endeavors. Recent research has revealed the importance of NFC for affective adjustment, especially in combination with self-control. We followed up on those findings by addressing methodological issues as well as processes that may underlie relations of NFC to self-control. Study 1 ( N = 102) examined whether NFC is associated with self-control independently of the measure or facet considered. Implicit willpower theories, that is, subjective beliefs concerning the limitation of self-control resources, were examined as a mediator for NFC predicting self-control. Higher NFC was associated with increased trait self-control but also with believing in unlimited self-control resources. The relation of NFC to willpower theories also mediated the prediction of trait self-control. Study 2 ( N = 188) replicated relations of NFC to self-control. We further pursued the explanatory approach from Study 1 and experimentally manipulated willpower theories to provide insight into their association with NFC. Willpower theories were related to NFC but had no mediating role in predicting self-control. The experimental manipulation had no impact on situation-specific NFC. Altogether, both studies provided first evidence that relations of NFC to self-control depend on the self-control measure and that willpower theories may be crucial for explaining the association with self-control.

Need for cognition and burnout in teachers - A replication and extension study

Burnout has become more prevalent, mainly in social jobs, and there is evidence that certain personality traits protect against burnout. Only recently, studies have focused on investment traits like Need for Cognition (NFC), the stable intrinsic motivation to seek out and enjoy effortful cognitive activities. This study had three aims: First, the replication of findings by Grass et al. (2018), who investigated NFC and the burnout subscale reduced personal efficacy in student teachers, in a sample of 180 teachers. Second, investigating the role of perceived demands and resources in the context of NFC and burnout. And finally, creating an exploratory model for further research. The results indicated that unlike the student sample, the teachers' association of NFC and reduced personal efficacy was mediated by self-control but not reappraisal. Teachers with higher NFC and self-control also had lower burnout because they experienced their resources as fitting to the demands.

Exploring the Interplay Between Message Format, Need for Cognition and Personal Relevance on Processing Messages About Physical Activity: a Two-Arm Randomized Experimental Trial

BACKGROUND

According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, persuasion can occur via two different routes (the central route and peripheral route), with the route utilized dependent on factors associated with motivation and ability. This study aimed to explore the moderating role of need for cognition (NFC) and perceived relevance on the processing of physical activity messages designed to persuade via either the central route or the peripheral route.

METHOD

Participants (N = 50) were randomized to receive messages optimized for central route processing or messages optimized for peripheral route processing. Eye-tracking devices were used to assess attention, which was the primary outcome. Message perceptions and the extent of persuasion (changes in physical activity determinants) were also assessed via self-report as secondary outcomes. Moderator effects were examined using interaction terms within mixed effects models and linear regression models.

RESULTS

There were no detected interactions between condition and NFC for any of the study outcomes (all ps > .05). Main effects of personal relevance were observed for some self-report outcomes, with increased relevance associated with better processing outcomes. An interaction between need for cognition and personal relevance was observed for perceived behavioral control (p = 0.002); greater relevance was associated with greater perceived behavioral control for those with a higher need for cognition.

CONCLUSION

Matching physical activity messages based on NFC may not increase intervention efficacy. Relevance of materials is associated with greater change in physical activity determinants and may be more so among those with a higher NFC.

Retrieval Practice Is Effective Regardless of Self-Reported Need for Cognition - Behavioral and Brain Imaging Evidence

There is an emerging consensus that retrieval practice is a powerful way to enhance long-term retention and to reduce achievement gaps in school settings. Less is known whether retrieval practice benefits performance in individuals with low intrinsic motivation to spend time and effort on a given task, as measured by self-reported need for cognition (NFC). Here, we examined retrieval practice in relation to individual differences in NFC by combining behavioral and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data. Using a within-subject design, upper-secondary school students (N = 274) learned a language-based material (Swahili-Swedish word-pairs), with half of the items by means of retrieval practice with feedback and half by study only. One week later, the students were tested on the word-pairs either in the classroom (n = 204), or in a fMRI scanner (n = 70). In both settings, a retrieval practice effect was observed across different levels of NFC (high or low). Relatedly, comparable fMRI effects were seen in both NFC subgroups. Taken together, our findings provide behavioral and brain-imaging evidence that retrieval practice is effective also for individuals with lower levels of NFC, which is of direct relevance for educational practice.

Curiosity helps: Growth in need for cognition bidirectionally predicts future reduction in anxiety and depression symptoms across 10 years

INTRODUCTION

Decreased motivational tendency to seek out, engage in, and enjoy investing in complex cognitive processes in a sustained manner (need for cognition; NFC) may be a predictor and consequence of heightened anxiety and depression symptoms (ADS). However, the majority of investigations on this topic have been cross-sectional, which hinders causal inferences.

METHODS

The current study thus determined the within-person relations between NFC and ADS by using random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) and bivariate dual latent change score (BLCS) approaches to separate between- and within-person effects. RI-CLPM and BLCS also present with advantages of adjusting for regression to the mean, baseline scores, autoregressive and lagged effects, and minimizing measurement error. Community-dwelling adults (n = 6750) completed the Mental Health Inventory-5 and trait-level NFC scales approximately every one year across 10 years.

RESULTS

RI-CLPM showed that within persons, lower level of NFC predicted higher future level of ADS, and vice versa (d = -0.852 to -0.498). Likewise, BLCS demonstrated that within persons, smaller change in NFC forecasted larger subsequent increase in ADS, and conversely (d = -0.631 to -0.519). Findings remained after adjusting for socio-demographic covariates.

CONCLUSION

Consistent with theories, findings suggested that the within-person level-to-future level and change-to-future change relations among NFC and ADS were bi-directional and negative, with moderate-to-large effect sizes. Targeting NFC may treat or prevent the emergence of depression and anxiety disorders. Such efforts may include augmenting or personalizing evidence-based cognitive-behavioral therapeutic strategies for individuals with or at-risk for heightened ADS.

Cognition and Academic Performance: Mediating Role of Personality Characteristics and Psychology Health

This study uses personality and psychology health characteristics of high school students as intermediary variables to study how cognitive ability affects academic performance, and analyzes memory, information processing, presentation, logical reasoning, and thinking transformation ability in high school students. In this study, the structural equation model (SEM) was used to analyze the mediating effect, and the bootstrap method was used to test the significance of the mediating effect. The participants were 572 high school students from Beijing, China. They completed a survey that included questions on cognitive ability, personality characteristics, and psychology health. This study uses structural equation modeling for mediation analysis. Through the analysis of four models of comprehensive academic performance, Chinese academic performance, mathematics academic performance, and English academic performance, the results of the study showed that cognitive ability has a significant effect on academic performance, and personality characteristics and psychology health play a partially mediating role between cognitive ability and English academic performance. The mediation effect is about 40%.

No relation of Need for Cognition to basic executive functions

OBJECTIVE

Need for Cognition (NFC) refers to a personality trait describing the relatively stable intrinsic motivation of individuals to invest cognitive effort in cognitive endeavors. Higher NFC is associated with a more elaborated, central information processing style and increased recruitment of resources in cognitively demanding situations. To further clarify the association between cognitive resources and NFC, we examined in two studies how NFC relates to executive functions as basic cognitive abilities.

METHOD

In Study 1, 189 healthy young adults completed an NFC scale and a battery of six commonly used inhibitory control tasks (Stroop, antisaccade, stop-signal, flanker, shape-matching, word-naming). In Study 2, 102 healthy young adults completed the NFC scale and two tasks for each of the three executive functions inhibitory control (go-nogo, stop-signal), shifting (number-letter, color-shape), and working memory updating (two-back, letter-memory).

RESULTS

Using a Bayesian approach to correlation analysis, we found no conclusive evidence that NFC was related to any executive function measure. Instead, we obtained even moderate evidence for the null hypothesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Both studies add to more recent findings that shape the understanding of NFC as a trait that is less characterized by increased cognitive control abilities but rather by increased willingness to invest effort and exert self-control via motivational processes.

Thinking in action: Need for Cognition predicts Self-Control together with Action Orientation

Need for Cognition describes relatively stable interindividual differences in cognitive motivation. Previous research has shown relations of Need for Cognition to Self-Control–a capacity that can be broadly defined as resistance to temptation–yet, the processes underlying this relation remain unclear. One explanation for the prediction of Self-Control by Need for Cognition can be an increased motivation to invest cognitive effort with higher levels of Need for Cognition. Another possible link could be that individual differences in the implementation of Self-Control intentions may play a moderating or mediating role for the predictive value of Need for Cognition. Such individual differences in the self-motivated initiation and maintenance of intentions are described by dispositional Action Orientation. Therefore, in the present study, Action Orientation was examined with regard to its possible role in explaining the relation of Need for Cognition to Self-Control. In a sample of 1209 young adults, Self-Control was assessed with two different self-report instruments and moderation and mediation models of the relationship between Need for Cognition, Action Orientation, and Self-Control were tested. While there was no evidence for a moderating role of Action Orientation in explaining the relation of Need for Cognition and Self-Control, Action Orientation was found to partly mediate this relation with a remaining direct effect of Need for Cognition on Self-Control. These results add to the conceptual understanding of Need for Cognition and demonstrate the relevance of trait variables to predict Self-Control.

Freude am Denken als Schlüssel zum Erfolg? Die Bedeutung von Need for Cognition für subjektives Erleben und Leistung im Studium

Zusammenfassung.Need for Cognition (NFC) beschreibt interindividuelle Unterschiede in der Freude an und der Beschäftigung mit anspruchsvollen kognitiven Aufgaben. Bisherige Forschung im akademischen Kontext untersuchte NFC vorrangig im Zusammenhang mit kognitiven und leistungsbezogenen Variablen. In dieser Studie wurde hingegen die Bedeutung von NFC für Erfolg im Studium insbesondere für subjektives Erleben untersucht. Für ein besseres Verständnis wurde die vermittelnde Rolle der regulativen Merkmale Selbstkontrollkapazität, Strategien der Emotionsregulation und Copingverhalten geprüft. Untersucht wurden Lehramtsstudierende (N = 167) als Gruppe, die bereits im Studium eine erhöhte Beanspruchung zeigt. Erwartungskonform hing NFC mit fast allen regulativen Merkmalen zusammen. Bezogen auf Studienerfolg wurden die Annahmen nur teilweise bestätigt: NFC war mit besseren Studienleistungen und einer höheren subjektiven Leistungsfähigkeit assoziiert. Dabei wurde die Vorhersage wahrgenommener Leistungsfähigkeit über regulative Merkmale vermittelt. Zukünftige Studien sollten untersuchen, weshalb in dieser Stichprobe nur ein Teil der Erlebensaspekte mit NFC zusammenhingen und die Ergebnisse für Studierende anderer Fächer prüfen.

Cognitive Engagement Mediates the Relationship between Positive Life Events and Positive Emotionality

Need for Cognition (NFC) is conceptualized as an individuals' tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activity and, thus, captures one's cognitive engagement. It plays a well-established role in information processing in experimental or academic contexts. However, so far comparably little is known about its consequences for other than purely cognitive or academic outcomes. Indeed, NFC is positively associated with personality traits pertaining to Positive Emotionality (PE) and negatively to traits related to Negative Emotionality (NE). Moreover, evidence suggests NFC to be related to an active, problem-focused coping style. We therefore hypothesized NFC to mediate between life events and individual differences in PE and NE. In a sample of N = 202 volunteers from the general population, we observed that the number of past positive and negative life events had direct effects on PE, and NE, respectively, and that for positive life events, a mediating effect on PE via NFC was observed, with a higher number of past positive life events being related to higher NFC that in turn was related to increased PE. Thus, the present results lend support to the notion of NFC as an important factor supporting personal well-being by way of its mediating role between the number of past positive life events and positive affect.