Self-Objectification and Cognitive Performance: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Integration of sex/gender and utilization of ecological Momentary assessment of cognition in clinical populations: a scoping review

Objectives: We aimed to describe the methods of smartphone-based cognitive ecological momentary assessment designs in clinical populations, with an intention to evaluate how the role of sex and/or gender has been considered in the design and analyses, particularly including female-specific physiology. Methods: This scoping review was conducted based on JBI scoping review methodology. On March 2nd, 2023, we searched for literature across four databases. Screening of the results and data extraction were conducted in duplicate according to the a priori methods in the pre-registered protocol. Results: 31 articles were included in this review. Participants ranged in age from 15-85 years old with various clinical disorders. Prompts were given between 1-7 times per day for 7-84 days. Executive function was the most frequently assessed cognitive domain. Over half the studies (n = 17, 55%) did not investigate the effects of sex and/or gender, and only one study considered the impact of hormonal therapy. Many studies (n = 14, 45%) used sex and gender interchangeably or incorrectly. Conclusions: Studies varied in design, with heterogeneity in the reporting of methodological information. The lack of attention to sex/gender on neuropsychological outcomes can lead to confusion and contradiction regarding its potential impact on cognition in clinical populations. This may hinder the identification of effective interventions for those assigned female at birth who have been overlooked or considered indistinguishable from their male counterparts. Given the well-documented impact of sex/gender on cognition, it is essential that future neuropsychological research, especially EMA-based studies, prioritize investigating sex/gender to ensure better outcomes for all.

Brains over beauty: A preregistered test of the effects of objectification on women's cognitive performance

The present study was a preregistered, well-powered experimental test of findings related to the effect of state self-objectification and anticipation of the sexualized male gaze on women's cognitive performance. College women (n = 407) performed a working memory task in one of three randomly assigned conditions. In the experimental conditions (self-objectification and male gaze), women completed the task while being video recorded from the neck down. In the male gaze condition, participants were told their videos would later be evaluated by men as part of a separate dating study. Women in the control condition were not video recorded. Results indicated women experienced a moderate increase in state self-objectification in both experimental conditions. However, compared to the control condition, women in the experimental conditions did not show reduced performance on the working memory task (in either latency or accuracy), decreases in body satisfaction, or increases in negative mood. Across conditions, state self-objectification was not associated with accuracy or latency on the working memory task. Mixed findings concerning objectification's effect on cognitive performance may be attributed to variability in experimental manipulations and dependent variables employed in this area of research.

Objectifying the classroom: Examining self-objectification and its effects on cognitive resources within virtual class environments

Videoconferencing platforms (i.e., Zoom) allow for continuous appearance monitoring via the self-view setting - raising concerns about self-objectification. Prior research indicates that self-objectification is associated with diminished cognitive performance, which may affect learning. This experiment examined how videoconferencing camera settings affect body image and cognitive performance. Female college students (n = 167) participated in a Zoom call with various camera settings: camera with self-view (i.e., others could see them and they could see themselves on screen), camera without self-view (i.e., others on the call could see them, but they could not see themselves), and camera off. After random assignment to condition, participants completed a collaborative exercise, answered questions related to self-objectification and body anxiety, and took a math test. Camera settings had no effect on state self-objectification or appearance anxiety. Participants in the camera without self-view condition demonstrated worse performance on the math test than those who had their cameras off, but no other pairwise comparisons were significant. Surprisingly, high trait self-objectifiers were not more sensitive to self-view camera exposure, though high trait self-objectification was associated with greater appearance anxiety across conditions. State self-objectification did not predict cognitive performance. Still, findings demonstrate a meaningful effect of camera settings on cognitive performance.

The ethics of sexual relationships between psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the 'me too' era

OBJECTIVE

Since 2017, the structural dynamics that entrench rape culture, sexual harassment and exploitation have gained increased attention across the globe, particularly in regards to workplaces. This paper aims to review the current RANZCP guidelines and other literature pertaining to the ethics of sexual relationships between psychiatrists and trainees.

CONCLUSIONS

Such relationships involve significant power differentials, which may make them unethical on an individual level. A culture condoning such relationships may also disadvantage women in the workplace. The current RANZCP guidelines on relationships between supervisors and trainees may unfairly disadvantage trainees.

Zooming in: The relationship between appearance concerns and perceived performance whilst videoconferencing among Australian adults

Videoconferencing for work/study purposes has increased rapidly due to the COVID-19 global pandemic. Given this practice often involves viewing one's own video image, higher appearance concerns whilst videoconferencing may be linked to poorer performance whereby individuals may not feel they are able to engage or have control during a work/study meeting. The present study cross-sectionally examined whether both facial appearance concerns and fear of negative evaluation during videoconferencing for work/study purposes were directly and indirectly related to performance control and engagement, through self-focused attention and appearance distraction. Adult participants (N = 534, M_age = 26.32, SD = 11.08; 78% female) completed an online survey during the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. Path analysis revealed direct and indirect effects, suggesting that heightened appearance self-consciousness was associated with greater self- and appearance-focused attention. In turn, this was related to impaired performance during videoconferencing. Multigroup analyses demonstrated that the magnitude of the proposed correlational effects were comparable across men and women. Given the ongoing reliance on videoconferencing, these findings have important theoretical and practical implications.

The power of emojis: The impact of a leader's use of positive emojis on members' creativity during computer-mediated communications

The existing literature on emojis offers limited insights on the effects of using emojis in organizational settings, especially in the context of leader-member relationships. The current research examines how a leader's use of positive emojis can influence members' creative performance, a critical determinant of an organization's success and productivity. We find that a leader's use of positive emojis enhances members' creativity and that this effect is mediated by a decrease in members' perception of objectification by the leader. We further find that this impact of a leader's use of positive emojis on members' creativity is stronger when members have a higher level of relationship orientation. Contrary to the popular belief that the use of emojis in a work setting is inappropriate, our findings reveal that leaders' use of emojis has positive impacts on important workplace outcomes. These findings provide important guidelines on how to apply emojis to computer-mediated communications at work by demonstrating the circumstances in which positive consequences of using emojis occur.

"Can you see me?" Videoconferencing and eating disorder risk during COVID-19: Anxiety, impairment, and mediators

OBJECTIVE

The use of videoconferencing has increased during the pandemic, creating prolonged exposure to self-image. This research aimed to investigate whether eating disorder (ED) risk was associated with videoconferencing performance for work or study and to explore whether the use of safety behaviors and self-focused attention mediated the relationship between ED risk and perceived control over performance anxiety, impaired engagement, or avoidance of videoconferencing for work or study.

METHOD

In 2020, an online survey was distributed within Australia to those aged over 18 years via academic and social networks, measuring: use of videoconferencing for work/study, demographics, ED risk, safety behaviors for appearance concerns, self-focused attention, perceived control over performance anxiety, perceived engagement impairment, and avoidance of videoconferencing. A total of 640 participants (77.3% female, M_age  = 26.2 years) returned complete data and were included in analyses.

RESULTS

245 participants (38.7%) were considered at-risk for EDs (SCOFF > 2). Those at-risk reported significantly more safety behaviors, self-focused attention, impaired engagement, and avoidance, plus lower perceived control over performance anxiety than those not at-risk. Multiple mediation models found the effects of ED risk on control over performance anxiety, impaired engagement, and avoidance were partially mediated by safety behaviors and self-focused attention.

DISCUSSION

Our cross-sectional findings suggest videoconferencing for work/study-related purposes is associated with performance anxiety, impaired engagement, and avoidance among individuals at-risk for EDs. Poorer videoconferencing outcomes appear more strongly related to social anxiety variables than ED status. Clinicians and educators may need to provide extra support for those using videoconferencing.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

Because videoconferencing often involves seeing your own image (via self-view) we wondered whether the appearance concerns experienced by those with eating disorders (EDs) might interfere with the ability to focus on or to contribute to work/study videoconferencing meetings. We found that although those with EDs experience more impairments in their videoconferencing engagement/contribution, these were linked just as strongly to social anxiety as they were to appearance concerns.

The Role of Body Shame and Age on Appearance-Based Exercise and Positive Body Image in Women from Poland: Preliminary Results of a Cluster Analysis

The aim of this study has been to analyse whether body shame and age may play a role in appearance-based exercise and positive body image in Women from Poland. It was assumed that women with high body shame and at the stage of young adulthood have significantly greater levels of appearance-based exercise and lower positive body image than those with a low level of body shame and at the stage of middle adulthood. The final sample included 234 Polish women (age: M = 31.58, SD = 13.93; body mass index: M = 23.45, SD = 4.72). Participants completed: the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS), the Exercise Appearance Motivations Scale (EAMS), the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) and a socio-demographic survey. The cluster analysis technique indicated four distinct clusters: (a) Cluster 1 (N = 83): high body shame and young adulthood; (b) Cluster 2 (N = 29): high body shame and middle adulthood; (c) Cluster 3 (N = 88): low body shame and young adulthood; (d) Cluster 4 (N = 34): low body shame and middle adulthood. The outcomes partially support the hypothesis, as higher levels of almost all subscales related to appearance-based exercise (EAMS: "muscularity", "societal pressures", "shape/weight concerns", "avoidance/shame") and lower positive body image (BAS-2) were observed in women with high body shame and at the stage of young adulthood compared with women with a low level of body shame and at the stage of middle adulthood. These results indicate that both body shame and age may contribute to the intensity of appearance-based exercise and positive body image deterioration. Clarity on this issue is essential to ensure that an appropriate preventive activity and interventions are made which will be able to take into account the specific sociocultural context in Poland.

Psychotherapeutic Change Mechanisms and Causal Psychotherapy: Applications to Child Abuse and Trauma

The study of change mechanisms in psychotherapy needs to be integrated with the causality of behavior, which leads to the concept of causal psychotherapy. Causal psychotherapy is posited as a useful adjunct to standard, evidence based psychotherapies for child and youth victims of abuse and trauma. The article illustrates six processes that could be involved in causal psychotherapy in this context, from the distal to the proximal. They include the distal mechanism of activation-inhibition coordination. The most proximal one relates to executive function. The intermediate levels include ones related to co-regulation (e.g., self control), analysis-synthesis, objectivity-subjectivity, and psychological reserve, which is a new concept in the domain of psychological change mechanisms. Each of the variables can vary from high to low, with the low end being more problematic. Psychotherapy can aim to bring the patient toward adaptive levels. The literature review focuses on psychotherapeutic change mechanisms, and standard psychotherapies for child/youth abuse/trauma, especially trauma-focused cognitive behavior therapy (TF-CBT). Then, it considers causal aspects of child/youth abuse and trauma, including PTSD. The discussion relates causal therapy to the question of unifying psychology and psychotherapy under the rubric of causality as a core integrative mechanism.

Lay awake with a racing mind: The associations between sexual objectification, insomnia, and affective symptoms

BACKGROUND

Sexual objectification is a form of interpersonal maltreatment that women may experience in daily life. Research has focused on testing how it leads to various psychological distresses. However, little research has examined its influences on women's sleep quality, the underlying psychological mechanisms, and the potential implications for affective symptoms. We addressed this research gap by testing whether sexual objectification predicted perceived stress and insomnia, thereby predicting affective symptoms (i.e., depression and anxiety). We further examined whether sex-is-power beliefs moderated these associations.

METHODS

Participants completed validated measures of sex-is-power beliefs, sexual objectification, perceived stress, insomnia, depression, and anxiety. We conducted regression analyses, structural equation modeling, and bootstrapping analyses to test the associations between these psychological constructs.

RESULTS

As predicted, the results showed that sexual objectification was positively associated with perceived stress, insomnia, and affective symptoms. Moreover, perceived stress and insomnia serially mediated the association between sexual objectification and affective symptoms. Furthermore, sex-is-power beliefs moderated the serial mediation effect, such that the effect was only observed among participants with weak sex-is-power beliefs.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings advanced current theories and knowledge of sexual objectification by demonstrating that sexual objectification is associated with perceived stress and insomnia, thereby predicting affective symptoms. The findings also highlighted the role of beliefs in weakening the negative consequences of sexual objectification.

When looking 'hot' means not feeling cold: Evidence that self-objectification inhibits feelings of being cold

Self-objectification, the internalization of an observer's appearance-based perspective of one's body, has been theorized and demonstrated to reduce body awareness among women. In this field study, we propose self-objectification as the mechanism to explain the oft-observed phenomenon where women wearing little clothing appear unbothered by cold weather, positing that self-objectification obstructs women's feelings of cold. We surveyed women outside nightclubs on cold nights, assessed self-objectification, and asked participants to report how cold they felt. Anonymous photos were taken and coded for amount of skin exposure. We hypothesized that self-objectification would moderate the relationship between clothing coverage and reports of feeling cold. Our hypothesis was supported: women low in self-objectification showed a positive, intuitive, relationship between skin exposure and perceptions of coldness, but women more highly focused on their appearance did not feel colder when wearing less clothing. These findings offer support for the relationship between self-objectification and awareness of bodily sensations in the context of a naturalistic setting. We discuss implications of these findings, and also consider limitations, an alternative explanation, and directions for future research.

COVID-19-Related Stress and Anxiety, Body Mass Index, Eating Disorder Symptomatology, and Body Image in Women from Poland: A Cluster Analysis Approach

To limit the spread of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19), many countries have introduced mandated lockdown or social distancing measures. Although these measures may be successful against COVID-19 transmission, the pandemic and attendant restrictions are a source of chronic and severe stress and anxiety which may contribute to the emergence or worsening of symptoms of eating disorders and the development of negative body image. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to: (1) classify different conditions associated with COVID-19-related stress, COVID-19-related anxiety, and weight status; and (2) analyze and compare the severity of dimensions typically related to eating disorders symptomatology and body image in individuals with different COVID-19-related stress, COVID-19-related anxiety, and weight status. Polish women (N = 671, Mage = 32.50 ± 11.38) completed measures of COVID-19-related stress and anxiety along with body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, and bulimia symptomatology subscales of the Eating Disorders Inventory, and the appearance evaluation, overweight preoccupation, and body areas satisfaction subscales of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. The following four clusters were identified through cluster analysis: (a) Cluster 1 (N = 269), healthy body weight and low COVID-related stress (M = 3.06) and anxiety (M = 2.96); (b) Cluster 2 (N = 154), healthy body weight and high COVID-related stress (M = 5.43) and anxiety (M = 5.29); (c) Cluster 3 (N = 127), excess body weight and high COVID-related stress (M = 5.23) and anxiety (M = 5.35); (d) Cluster 4 (N = 121), excess body weight and low COVID-related stress (M = 2.69) and anxiety (M = 2.83). Our results showed that Clusters 3 and 4 had significantly greater body dissatisfaction and lower appearance evaluation and body areas satisfaction than Clusters 1 and 2. Cluster 3 also had a significantly higher level of drive for thinness, bulimia, and overweight preoccupation than Clusters 1 and 2. These preliminary findings may mean that the COVID-19 pandemic and attendant anxiety and stress caused by the pandemic are exacerbating symptoms of eating disorders and negative body image, with women with excess weight particularly at risk.