Poor Motor Performance - Do Peers Matter? Examining the Role of Peer Relations in the Context of the Environmental Stress Hypothesis

Body composition and motor function in children born large for gestational age at term

BACKGROUND

This cross-sectional study compared body composition and motor function between children who were born large for gestational age (LGA) and those born appropriate for gestational age (AGA) and to investigate the association between gait quality and other variables.

METHODS

Body composition was determined using a bioelectrical impedance analyzer. Motor functions were assessed using one-leg standing time, timed up-and-go test, five times sit-to-stand test, and three-dimensional gait analysis. We compared the results between two groups. We performed multiple regression analysis to evaluate the association between gait deviation index and variables of LGA, fat mass index, and motor functions (adjusted for age and sex).

RESULTS

Children aged 6-12 years who were born LGA at term (n = 23) and those who were born AGA at term (n = 147) were enrolled. The LGA group had a higher fat mass index (2.9 vs. 2.2, p = 0.006) and lower gait deviation index (91.4 vs. 95.4, p = 0.011) than the AGA group. On multiple regression analysis, gait deviation index was associated with being LGA and fat mass index.

CONCLUSIONS

In school-aged children who were born LGA, monitoring increased fat mass index and decreased gait deviation index could lessen the risk of metabolic syndrome and reduced gait function.

IMPACT

Children aged 6-12 years who were born large for gestational age (LGA) at term showed a higher fat mass index and lower gait deviation index than those who were born appropriate for gestational age at term. No significant differences in balance function or muscle strength were observed between groups. On multiple regression analysis, gait deviation index was associated with being LGA at birth and fat mass index. In school-aged children who were born LGA, monitoring increased fat mass index and decreased gait deviation index could lessen the risk of metabolic syndrome and reduced gait function.

Social responsiveness in children with developmental coordination disorder

BACKGROUND

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in performing motor tasks. Research suggests social skills are also altered.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate (1) whether the presence of DCD affects social responsiveness, (2) whether the co-occurrence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects social responsiveness in children with DCD, and (3) whether there is an association between motor performance and social responsiveness in children with DCD.

METHODS

Based on parental reports, children aged 5 to 15.5 years were assigned to one of three groups: DCD only (noASD, n = 67), DCD and suspected ASD (sASD, n = 13), and DCD and confirmed ASD (cASD, n = 22). Parental answers to the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS-2) and the DCD-Questionnaire (DCD-Q) were compared to norm values using one sample t-tests, and between groups using ANOVA and MANOVA. Pearson correlation coefficients explored the relationship between the SRS-2 and DCD-Q in the total group and per group.

RESULTS

Compared to norm values, difficulties in all areas of social responsiveness were reported in children with DCD, regardless of group (p<0.001). Compared to the noASD group, more unfavorable SRS-2 total T-scores and poorer DCD-Q scores were observed in sASD and cASD groups. Only in the total group, motor performance showed significant weak to moderate associations with the SRS-2 total T-score and all subscales except for 'social motivation' (r=-0.306 to -0.405; p ≤ 0.02).

CONCLUSION

Social responsiveness difficulties are more common in children with DCD and are more severe in the ASD groups. Motor performance and social responsiveness are weak to moderately associated.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT05092893 (https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05092893).

International fitness scale (IFIS): association with motor performance in children with obesity

Background

Overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health; and compared with their normal-weight peers, these individuals tend to have a lower level of self-confidence, and consequently lower physical activity adherence. Due to these self-perceived barriers, the aim of our study was to evaluate the efficacy of an online training program on self-reported physical fitness (SRPF) in children with obesity (OB).

Methods

A total of 32 children with OB carried out physical fitness (PF) tests and were asked to complete the International Fitness Enjoyment Scale (IFIS) questionnaire. The physical fitness tests were the Standing Broad Jump (SBJ), the 6-Min Walking Test (6MWT) and the 4 × 10 m sprint test. Children participated in a 3-weekly 60-min training session through Zoom platform. Before the beginning of the training protocol, OB children were compared with normal weight (NW) ones for PF batteries and the IFIS questionnaire. Changes in performances after the training were assessed by paired Student t and Wilcoxon tests.

Results

After the online training program children increased their performance in 6MWT (mean difference (MD) = 54.93; p < 0.0001) in SBJ (MD = 10.00; p = 0.0001) and in 4 × 10 m sprint test (MD = -0.78; p < 0.0001). No differences were found in children's physical fitness perception.

Discussion

Our study highlighted how a structured online training program can lead to improvements in PF of children with OB. Instead, the lack of differences in SRPF after the training suggests interesting questions to be explored on the aspects linked to self-perception. Therefore, even if our training protocol could not directly improve SRPF in children with obesity, the enhancement of their PF could be a starting point for achieving this result with a longer training period and consequently improve PA participation for children with OB.

Self-esteem, self-efficacy, and social support mediate the relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems in adults: Exploring the environmental stress hypothesis in adulthood

The Environmental Stress Hypothesis (ESH) is a theoretical model used to understand the factors mediating the relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems. The aim of this study is to explore a potential extension of the ESH by examining whether BMI, physical activity levels, self-esteem, self-efficacy and social support are potential mediators between motor proficiency and internalizing problems in young adults. 290 adults aged between 18 and 30 years old (150 women, 140 men) were evaluated with the following instruments: Adult Developmental Coordination Disorders Checklist (ADC), Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS 21), Social Support Satisfaction Scale (SSSS), Perceived General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), and self-reported body mass index (BMI). The results indicated that self-esteem, self-efficacy, and social support mediate the relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems in this sample. Thus, the findings reinforce the notion that early intervention and preventive psychological care can serve as protective aspects of mental health in adults at risk for low motor proficiency.

Below average motor skills predict victimization from childhood bullies: A study of adults with ADHD

Children with ADHD are frequently clumsy and involved in bullying, both as victims and perpetrators. The relationship between motor skills and bully status is poorly understood. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the effect of motor skills in childhood on bully victimization/perpetration in those with ADHD. In this cross-sectional study, 403 adults diagnosed with ADHD filled out a questionnaire on their recall of bully victimization, bully perpetration, performance in physical education (PE) (defined as performance below average in i.e., ball dexterity, coordination or agility) as a proxy for motor skills, and academic skills at age 12, as compared to their peers. Of the current sample, 63% remembered being victimized and 31% noted they were perpetrators. Thirty-two percent recalled that they performed below average in PE. Being diagnosed with ADHD and having poor motor skills was strongly associated with bully victimization (OR = 2.63; 95% CI:1.62, 4.27, p < .001). Victimization was more common during all measured time periods, from nursery school until the age of 15, among those with poor performance in PE as compared to those without poor performance. No relationship was found between poor motor skills and bully perpetration. CONCLUSION: A crucial role of the cerebellum is coordination and the linking of sequenced motor actions through milli-second timing. Aberrations in this ability makes a person present as "different", which was stated as the most common reason for social exclusion by other children. Therefore, subtle clumsiness (presumed by poor performance in PE class) is suggested to mirror deficits in social skills, which is intuitively observed by peers, leading to victimization.

Decreased Balance Function in School-Aged Children with Behavioral Problems

Children with behavioral problems have a high risk of impaired motor performance. However, the characteristics of balance functions and their associations with behavioral traits are unclear in this population. This study aimed to evaluate balance functions and their relationships with the degree of behavioral problems in school-aged children. A total of 209 children, aged 6–10 years, were divided into two groups, those with and those without behavioral problems, using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Physical assessments included the one-leg standing test (OLST), the two-step test, and the five-times-sit-to-stand test. We compared the data between groups and assessed for correlations in terms of total difficulties and the SDQ subscale scores. Children with behavioral problems showed significantly reduced the OLST results (p < 0.001) and the two-step test results (p = 0.008). The five-times-sit-to-stand test results did not show significant differences between groups. The OLST results were significantly correlated with emotional symptoms (r = −0.22, p < 0.001), hyperactivity/inattention (r = −0.29, p < 0.001), peer relationship problems (r = −0.22, p < 0.001), and total difficulties (r = −0.32, p < 0.001). Meanwhile, the two-step test results showed no significant correlation with the SDQ scores. Children with behavioral problems have poor balance function, thereby increasing the risk for instability. This suggests that the balance function of children with behavioral problems needs to be considered.

Externalizing problems mediate the relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems in children: An extension of the Environmental Stress Hypothesis

The Environmental Stress Hypothesis (ESH) is a causal theoretical framework that provides a flexible context for understanding factors that mediate the relationship between low motor proficiency and internalizing problems in children. The purpose of the present study was to use the ESH framework to determine whether body mass index (BMI), physical activity levels, psychosocial health and physical health, self-efficacy, perceived social status, prosocial behavior and externalizing problems were potential mediators between motor proficiency and internalizing factors in a population of Brazilian children. 431 children aged 7- to 10 years (240 females, 191 males) participated in the study. The variables were measured with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2^nd ed. (MABC-2), the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL), the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), the MacArthur Subjective Social Status Scale (MacArthur SSS), the Self-efficacy Sense Assessment Roadmap (RASAE), and the Physical Activity Questionnaire (PAQ). The results indicated a direct relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems in a population of Brazilian children, with externalizing problems being the only variable mediating that relationship. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that externalizing problems were tested in the context of the ESH. Understanding and evaluating potential mediators in the relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems using the ESH framework is essential to promote prevention policies and interventions for school-age children.

The longitudinal role of early family risks and early social-emotional problems for friendship quality in preadolescence-A regression model

The quality of a best friendship provides information about how developmentally beneficial it is. However, little is known about possible early risk factors that influence later friendship quality. The present study examined the role of family risks and social-emotional problems (behavioral problems, peer problems, anxious, and depressive symptoms) in early childhood for positive (i.e., support and help) and negative (i.e., conflicts and betrayal) dimensions of friendship quality with their best friend in preadolescence. 293 children (47.9% female) aged 2–4, their parents and teachers participated in the study with three measurement occasions (T1; M_age = 2.81, T2; M_age = 3.76, T3; M_age = 9.69). The last measurement occasion was at the age of 9–11 years. Results of the longitudinal regression model showed that depressive symptoms in early childhood were associated with a lower positive dimension of friendship quality in preadolescence. In contrast, early anxious symptoms were related to a higher positive dimension of friendship quality six years later. Neither family risks, nor behavioral problems and peer problems in early childhood were linked to the positive dimension of friendship quality in preadolescence. No early predictors were found for the negative dimension of friendship quality. Possible reasons for the lack of associations are discussed. Findings suggest that children with early depressive symptoms at 3–5 years of age should be the targets of potential interventions to form high quality friendships in preadolescence. Possible interventions are mentioned.