Risk Perceptions and Psychological Effects During the Italian COVID-19 Emergency

Exploring the exponential sensitivity of risk perception in the COVID-19 pandemic

Individual's risk perception regarding specific hazards is a dynamic process that evolves over time. This study analyzed the relationship between the number of COVID-19 cases and the South Korean public's risk perceptions from the outset of the pandemic to the recent past. More than 70 repeated cross-sectional surveys were conducted biweekly to measure individuals' risk perception. An autoregressive integrated moving average with explanatory variable time series analysis was used to characterize the relationship between the number of COVID-19 cases and level of risk perceptions. It revealed that individuals' risk perception and the number of COVID-19 cases were not linearly related but were logarithmically correlated. This finding can be understood as a psychic numbing effect, suggesting that people's perception of risk is not linear but rather exponentially sensitive to changes. The findings also revealed a significant influence of individuals' trust in local governments on their risk perceptions, highlighting the substantial role played by local governments in direct risk management during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Virtual resonance: analyzing IPA usage intensity under COVID-19's isolating canopy

The widespread adoption of smartphones coupled with advancements in artificial intelligence has significantly propelled the use of intelligent personal assistants (IPAs). These digital assistants have become indispensable for many users, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. Employing coviance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) and analyzing data from 260 participants, this study explores the key factors influencing IPA usage intensity. Contrary to expectations, affective risk perception showed no significant impact on either IPA usage or parasocial interaction during the pandemic. In stark contrast, cabin fever syndrome significantly influenced both IPA usage and parasocial interaction, underscoring the role of environmental and psychological stressors in shaping technology use. Furthermore, loneliness was found to significantly enhance parasocial interaction with IPAs, though it did not affect usage intensity. The findings highlight a substantial connection between parasocial interaction and IPA usage intensity, suggesting that users who engage in human-like interactions with IPAs tend to use them more extensively. These insights not only deepen our understanding of how IPAs are utilized during health crises but also point to potential directions for developing IPAs that are more responsive to users' emotional and social needs.

Factors influencing risk perception during Public Health Emergencies of International Concern (PHEIC): a scoping review

The unknownness and dread potential of a risk event shapes its perceived risk. A public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) declaration by the World Health Organisation (WHO) is a signal for such an event. Understanding perceived risk then shapes risk-avoiding behaviours, important for health prevention. The review aims to consolidate the determinants of risk perception during a PHEIC, underscoring the need for grounding in context and theory. Studies published from 2010 until end-2020, searching PubMed, PsycINFO, MedlinePlus, PubPsych, and CINAHL, were included. Studies with only biological conceptualisations of risk, or no association to risk perception, were excluded. A total of 65 studies were included. Quality of the cross-sectional studies was assessed using Newcastle Ottawa Scale (NOS), yielding an average of 5.4 stars (out of 10). Factors were classified into three broad categories - individual, contextual, and media. Individual risk factors include emotions; beliefs, trust, and perceptions; immutable physical traits (sex, age, ethnicity); mutable traits (education, income, etc.); and knowledge, with no definitive correlation to risk perception. Contextual traits include pandemic experience, time, and location, with only time negatively correlated to risk perception. Media traits include exposure, attention, and framing of media, with no clear association to risk perception. One limitation is excluding a portion of COVID-19 studies due to censoring. Still, this lack of consensus highlights the need to better conceptualise "risk perception". Specifying the context and timing is also important since jurisdictions experience different outbreaks depending on outbreak histories. Using theories to ground risk perception research assists with these tasks.

Risk Perceptions Regarding COVID-19 and Compliance with Protective Measures of Midwifery and Nursing Senior Students

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to examine the risk perceptions of midwifery and nursing senior students regarding COVID-19 and compliance with vaccination and protective measures.

METHOD

This cross-sectional study was conducted in two academic years on senior midwifery and nursing students (n = 358). In the present study, the descriptive characteristics of the students and the COVID-19 risk perception scale were used.

RESULTS

The students' COVID-19 Risk Perception Scale scores were at a moderate level and a similar level in both years of this study. More than 80% of the students were fully vaccinated, and the family history of COVID-19 was positive in approximately half of them. In the second year of the pandemic, they paid less attention to social distance and avoidance of being indoors.

CONCLUSION

Although the COVID-19 risk perceptions of future health professional students remained at a similar level during the examined period, it was found that in the second year of the pandemic, they started to get used to the process and paid less attention to social protective measures.

The flashbulb-like nature of memory for the first COVID-19 case and the impact of the emergency. A cross-national survey

Flashbulb memories (FBMs) refer to vivid and long-lasting autobiographical memories for the circumstances in which people learned of a shocking and consequential public event. A cross-national study across eleven countries aimed to investigate FBM formation following the first COVID-19 case news in each country and test the effect of pandemic-related variables on FBM. Participants had detailed memories of the date and others present when they heard the news, and had partially detailed memories of the place, activity, and news source. China had the highest FBM specificity. All countries considered the COVID-19 emergency as highly significant at both the individual and global level. The Classification and Regression Tree Analysis revealed that FBM specificity might be influenced by participants' age, subjective severity (assessment of COVID-19 impact in each country and relative to others), residing in an area with stringent COVID-19 protection measures, and expecting the pandemic effects. Hierarchical regression models demonstrated that age and subjective severity negatively predicted FBM specificity, whereas sex, pandemic impact expectedness, and rehearsal showed positive associations in the total sample. Subjective severity negatively affected FBM specificity in Turkey, whereas pandemic impact expectedness positively influenced FBM specificity in China and negatively in Denmark.

An association between individual's risk perceptions and delayed or foregone healthcare services during the COVID-19 pandemic in Korea

BACKGROUND

Existing evidence highlights that the COVID-19 pandemic is associated with a large reduction in healthcare utilization for routine and less-urgent services around the world including Korea. During the COVID-19 pandemic, delayed and foregone healthcare are driven by various factors, and risk perception, a complex psychological construct, is one of them. The aim of this study was to examine how COVID-19 risk perceptions influence delayed and foregone care during the pandemic in Korea.

METHODS

The Koreans' Happiness Survey (KHS) 2020 was used to analyze responses from 13,491 individuals over 19 years of age residing in Korea. To assess delayed and foregone care, self-reported delayed or foregone care after the COVID-19 outbreak was used. COVID-19 risk perceptions were analyzed in terms of fear and severity of the pandemic based on responses from the participants. Logistic regression models, stratified by gender, were used to examine the relationship between COVID-19 risk perception and delayed/foregone healthcare.

RESULTS

Among the total 13,491 individuals included in the study, 4.0% (n = 541) reported delayed and foregone care in 2020. The results showed that higher level of fear of COVID-19 was associated with an increased likelihood of reporting delayed and foregone care in Korean adults (OR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.08-1.73). The gender-stratified model revealed that greater fear of COVID-19 was associated with higher odds of delayed and foregone healthcare (OR = 1.71, 95%CI = 1.23-2.39) among women while the perceived severity did not have any association. However, the perceived severity was associated with a higher likelihood of delayed and foregone care in men (OR = 1.17, 95%CI = 1.04-1.32), but no association was found between fear of COVID-19 and delayed and foregone healthcare in men.

CONCLUSIONS

To ensure the timely use of any needed healthcare services, it is worth considering establishing policy interventions to mitigate unnecessary fear and worries about COVID-19. This can be achieved by providing accurate information on the virus, protective measures, and treatment.

Predicting COVID-19 exposure risk perception using machine learning

BACKGROUND

Self-perceived exposure risk determines the likelihood of COVID-19 preventive measure compliance to a large extent and is among the most important predictors of mental health problems. Therefore, there is a need to systematically identify important predictors of such risks. This study aims to provide insight into forecasting and understanding risk perceptions and help to adjust interventions that target various social groups in different pandemic phases.

METHODS

This study was based on survey data collected from 5001 Norwegians in 2020 and 2021. Interpretable machine learning algorithms were used to predict perceived exposure risks. To detect the most important predictors, the models with best performance were chosen based on predictive errors and explained variances. Shapley additive values were used to examine individual heterogeneities, interpret feature impact and check interactions between the key predictors.

RESULTS

Gradient boosting machine exhibited the best model performance in this study (2020: RMSE=.93, MAE=.74, RSQ=.22; 2021: RMSE=.99, MAE=.77, RSQ=.12). The most influential predictors of perceived exposure risk were compliance with interventions, work-life conflict, age and gender. In 2020, work and occupation played a dominant role in predicting perceived risks whereas, in 2021, living and behavioural factors were among the most important predictors. Findings show large individual heterogeneities in feature importance based on people's sociodemographic backgrounds, work and living situations.

CONCLUSION

The findings provide insight into forecasting risk groups and contribute to the early detection of vulnerable people during the pandemic. This is useful for policymakers and stakeholders in developing timely interventions targeting different social groups. Future policies and interventions should be adapted to the needs of people with various life situations.

After the first lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic: Perceptions, experiences, and effects on well-being in Italian people

Background

Since the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent measures of containment, multiple studies have been conducted aimed at assessing the impacts on people's psychophysical well-being; however, few studies have investigated the general population's perceptions, experiences, and effects by adopting a mixed-method approach.

Methods

A total of 855 Italian participants completed an online survey, conducted in the period following the first lockdown in Italy. Psychological well-being, perceived stress and COVID-19-related fears were assessed by standardized questionnaires (Psychological General Well-Being Index-Short version, Perceived Stress Scale 10, and Multidimensional Assessment of COVID-19-Related Fears). The process of sense-making of the experience during the lockdown period was also evaluated by means of an open-ended question.

Results

Participants reported a lower level of general well-being, and a higher level of both perceived stress and COVID-19-related fear during the lockdown period compared to the time of the survey (1 month after the resumption of activities). The thematic analysis of responses to the open-ended question revealed two factors and five clusters, which explain the thematic variance among the narratives: the first factor refers to the type of experience (emotional states and feelings vs. objective descriptions of daily activities), while the second concerns positive or negative connotations of the experiences reported.

Conclusions

This study explored the psychological impact of the first lockdown on people's well-being, and described the process of making sense of the experience during the lockdown 1 month after going back to previous habits. Results highlighted the effectiveness of the mixed-method approach for an in-depth and exhaustive investigation of people's psychological condition during and after the first lockdown.

Lived experiences of risk among pregnant women in Baybay City, Leyte during the COVID-19 pandemic: A phenomenological study

Giving birth is risky by nature, and this makes pregnant women one of the most vulnerable individuals during the COVID-19 pandemic. For pregnant women in Baybay City, Leyte, conceiving a child during a COVID-19 pandemic means: living with constant anxiety and worry, living with the fear of the unknown, and being the most vulnerable people in a medical emergency. These fears and worries revolved around hospital settings, financial difficulties, isolation, labor, and delivery while their feeling of vulnerability meant contracting the virus easily and having to undergo stricter protocols. Meanwhile, they had varied perceptions of COVID-19 risk. These were classified as positive or negative. Informants with positive perceptions were those that viewed COVID-19 as not personally risky but rather showed a hopeful view of its risk. They view its risk as something not too dangerous because of the vaccines available and that its symptoms are simple to cure. On the other hand, informants with negative perceptions view COVID-19 risks as something that will have a bad effect on them. They link pregnancy to susceptibility to COVID-19 and foresee premature birth, negative effects on the fetus development, and child-related death as negative results of COVID-19. Pregnant women also perceived COVID-19 risk deliberatively, affectively, and experientially. This indicates that they take the most deliberate approach to managing COVID-19 risk. Informants demonstrated affective reactions like worry and fear as they estimate the risks COVID-19 may pose to them. These factors together form their experiential risk perception of COVID-19 as an encounter with danger.

Investigating Students' Satisfaction with Online Collaborative Learning During the COVID-19 Period: An Expectation-Confirmation Model

The recent outbreak of COVID-19 posed discontinuous disruption to traditional learning modes worldwide. In order to keep social distance, online collaborative learning has become a necessity during the pandemic. However, our understanding of students' well-being and satisfaction with online collaborative learning is limited, especially during the COVID-19 period. Leveraging expectation confirmation theory, this study focuses on the triggers and inhibitors of students' cognitive load during online collaborative learning process and their subsequent satisfaction with the learning mode during the pandemic. We used a mixed-method approach in this study. We conducted a qualitative study with interview data and a quantitative study with surveys. The results indicate several psychological and cognitive antecedents of students' cognitive load during online collaborative learning. Findings also indicate that a high level of cognitive load will decrease students' perceived usefulness of the online learning platform and expectation confirmation, thus leading to a low level of satisfaction with online collaborative learning. This study can provide theoretical and practical implications for a better understanding of online student groups' satisfaction with online collaborative learning during the COVID-19 period.

Dark Triad and COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy: the role of conspiracy beliefs and risk perception

With the spread of the Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the mass vaccination plan represents the primary weapon to control the infection curve. Unfortunately, vaccine hesitancy also spread out worldwide. This led to exploring the critical factors that prevent vaccination from improving the efficacy of vaccine campaigns. In the present study, the role of the Dark Triad (psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism) in vaccine hesitancy was investigated, considering the sequential mediating effects of conspiracy beliefs and risk perception. Via a cross-sectional design, the study was conducted with 210 participants surveyed using an online questionnaire to assess the Dark Triad, vaccine hesitancy, conspiracy beliefs, risk perception, and a set of demographic and socio-cultural control variables. Results showed that conspiracy beliefs and risk perception fully mediated the association between the Dark Triad and vaccine hesitancy. This finding suggested that albeit personality accounts for individual differences in human behaviour, vaccine hesitancy is also affected by irrational and false beliefs that, in turn, weaken the risk perception associated with COVID-19. Implications and future research directions were discussed.

Telemedicine Use and the Perceived Risk of COVID-19: Patient Experience

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 outbreak resulted in an increased demand for telemedicine worldwide. Telemedicine is a technology-based virtual platform that allows the exchange of clinical data and images over remote distances. This study aims to examine the impact of the perceived risk of COVID-19 on telemedicine use in Bangladesh.

METHODS

This explanatory study was conducted in hospital settings across Dhaka city in Bangladesh. Patients were eligible to participate if they were aged 18 years or over and had used telemedicine in a hospital at least once since the COVID-19 outbreak. Outcome variables included sociodemographic, the perceived risk of COVID-19, and telehealth use. Study data were collected using an online and paper-based survey.

RESULTS

A total of 550 patients participated in this study, mostly male (66.4%), single (58.2%), and highly educated (74.2%). The means of the different domains of telemedicine use reflected a high degree of perceived benefit, accessibility, and satisfaction but a lower degree of privacy and discomfort, care personnel expertise, and usability. COVID 19 perceived risk predicted between 13.0% and 26.6% of variance in telemedicine domains, while the effects of demographic variables were controlled or removed. The perceived risk of COVID-19 was negatively correlated with privacy and discomfort, as well as care personnel concerns. Low and high levels of perceived COVID-19 risk were less likely to encourage the use of telemedicine as a risk reduction tool.

DISCUSSION

The participants were mainly satisfied with telemedicine, finding it beneficial and accessible; however, many were concerned about privacy, care personnel expertise, and its usability. The perceived risk of COVID-19 was a strong predictor (contributor) of telemedicine use, suggesting that risk perception can be used to encourage telemedicine use as a risk reduction strategy during pandemics; however, a medium level of risk was more promising.

Satisfaction With Governmental Risk Communication Both Increases and Decreases COVID-19 Mitigation Behaviours

Objectives: Over 3 years of the COVID-19 pandemic, and intense societal and governmental response, a wealth of research has examined risk perceptions and public risk mitigation behaviours. The vast majority of this inquiry has focused on health risks. Nevertheless, as a "total social fact" influencing nearly every aspect of quotidian life, the pandemic engenders a wide range of risk perceptions. Methods: Via a survey (N = 4,206) of representative samples of the general public in five European countries (Germany, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom), we explore perceptions of a range of personal/public health, economic, and societal risks. We also investigate the effects of perceptions of official governmental risk communication in one's country on risk perceptions and risk mitigation behaviours. Results: Structural equation modelling reveals that whilst perceptions of effective risk communication directly increase behaviours that mitigate COVID-19 health risks, these same perceptions indirectly decrease behaviour frequency via a mediated relationship with societal risk perceptions. Conclusion: The findings highlight the import of governmental authorities analysing and communicating about the range of risk perceptions citizens might have about a "total social fact" such as COVID-19.

Associations between COVID-19 Risk Perceptions and Mental Health, Wellbeing, and Risk Behaviours

Background

Mental health has worsened, and substance use has increased for some people during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Some cross-sectional studies suggest that higher COVID-19 risk perceptions are related to poorer mental health and greater risk behaviours (e.g., substance use). However, longitudinal and genetic data are needed to help to reduce the likelihood of reverse causality.

Methods

We used cross-sectional, longitudinal, and polygenic risk score (PRS; for anxiety, depression, wellbeing) data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). We examined cross-sectional and prospective longitudinal associations between COVID-19 risk perceptions (i.e., cognitive, affective, self, other, and a combined 'holistic' measure) and mental health (i.e., anxiety, depression), wellbeing, and risk behaviours. Pandemic (April-July 2020) and pre-pandemic (2003-2017) data (ns = 233-5,115) were included.

Results

Higher COVID-19 risk perceptions (holistic) were associated with anxiety (OR 2.78, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.20 to 3.52), depression (OR 1.65, 95% CI 1.24 to 2.18), low wellbeing (OR 1.76, 95% CI 1.45 to 2.13), and increased alcohol use (OR 1.46, 95% CI 1.24 to 1.72). Higher COVID-19 risk perceptions were also associated with self-isolating given a suspected COVID-19 infection (OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.13 to 2.68), and less face-to-face contact (OR 0.83, 95% CI 0.70 to 0.98) and physical contact (OR 0.83, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.00). Pre-pandemic anxiety (OR 1.64, 95% CI 1.29 to 2.09) and low wellbeing (OR 1.41, 95% CI 1.15 to 1.74) were associated with higher COVID-19 risk perceptions. The depression PRS (b 0.21, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.40) and wellbeing PRS (b -0.29, 95% CI -0.48 to -0.09) were associated with higher and lower COVID-19 risk perceptions, respectively.

Conclusions

Poorer mental health and wellbeing are associated with higher COVID-19 risk perceptions, and longitudinal and genetic data suggest that they may play a causal role in COVID-19 risk perceptions.

Associations between Lifestyle Changes, Risk Perception and Anxiety during COVID-19 Lockdowns: A Case Study in Xi'an

The outbreak of COVID-19 dramatically changed individuals' lifestyles, which in turn triggered psychological stress and anxiety. Many previous studies have discussed the relationships between lifestyle changes and anxiety and risk perception and anxiety independently. However, few papers have discussed these factors in a comprehensive and systematic manner. We established a six-dimensional system to assess changes in individuals' lifestyles, which include dietary habits, physical activity (PA), sleep, screen time, smoking and alcohol consumption, and interaction with neighbors. Then, we collected information relating to socio-demographics, lifestyle changes, risk perception, and anxiety, and discussed their associations using multilinear and stepwise logistic regressions. The results show that not all lifestyle changes had an influence on anxiety. Changes in PA and interaction with neighbors were not significantly associated with anxiety. Risk perception was found to be inversely related to anxiety. Changes in dietary habits, family harmony, and net income were negatively related to anxiety among the group with higher risk perception. As individuals perceived a higher severity of COVID-19, the impact of their financial status on anxiety increased. These findings provide a valuable resource for local governments seeking to refine their pandemic strategies by including approaches such as advocating healthy lifestyles and stabilizing the job market to improve individuals' mental health during lockdowns.

Risk perception and affective state on work exhaustion in obstetrics during the COVID-19 pandemic

A multicenter cross-sectional survey study involving four Italian University Hospitals was performed to test the hypothesis that negative affect and positive affect (affective dimensions) mediate the association between risk perception (perceived risk of infection and death; cognitive dimensions) and the feeling of work exhaustion (WE) among obstetrics healthcare providers (HCPs) during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Totally, 570 obstetrics HCPs were invited to complete the 104-item IPSICO survey in May 2020. A theoretical model built on the tested hypothesis was investigated by structural equation modelling. The model explained 32.2% of the WE variance. Only negative affect mediated the association between cognitive dimensions and WE and also the association between WE and psychological well-being before the pandemic, experiences of stressful events, female gender, and dysfunctional coping. Non-mediated associations with WE were observed for work perceived as a duty, experience of stressful events, support received by colleagues, and the shift strategy. Only previous psychological well-being, support by colleagues, and shift strategies were inversely associated with WE. Based on study results, monitoring negative than positive affect appears superior in predicting WE, with practical implications for planning psychological interventions in HCPs at the individual, interpersonal, and organizational levels.

False memory and COVID-19: How people fall for fake news about COVID-19 in digital contexts

People are often exposed to fake news. Such an exposure to misleading information might lead to false memory creation. We examined whether people can form false memories for COVID-19-related fake news. Furthermore, we investigated which individual factors might predict false memory formation for fake news. In two experiments, we provided participants with two pieces of COVID-19-related fake news along with a non-probative photograph. In Experiment 1, 41% (n = 66/161) of our sample reported at least one false memory for COVID-19-related fake news. In Experiment 2, even a higher percentage emerged (54.9%; n = 185/337). Moreover, in Experiment 2, participants with conspiracy beliefs were more likely to report false memories for fake news than those without such beliefs, irrespective of the conspiratorial nature of the materials. Finally, while well-being was found to be positively associated with both true and false memories (Experiment 1), only analytical thinking was negatively linked to the vulnerability to form false memories for COVID-19-related fake news (Experiment 2). Overall, our data demonstrated that false memories can occur following exposure to fake news about COVID-19, and that governmental and social media interventions are needed to increase individuals’ discriminability between true and false COVID-19-related news.

Back to School: Italian Teachers' Perceptions of the Impact of COVID-19 on Personal and Social Well-Being and Teaching Methods

During the COVID-19 pandemic, continuous closing and reopening of schools may have had an impact on teachers' perception of the risk of contracting SARS-CoV-2 and of the effectiveness of health measures introduced to limit the spread of the virus, with consequences on teaching methods and relational bonds within schools. By means of an online survey, we measured: teachers' stress, job-satisfaction, self-efficacy and emotions at work, risk-perception of contracting SARS-CoV-2, perception of effectiveness of health measures, teaching methods and social relationships. Participants were 2446 teachers (2142 women and 304 men) all engaged in the four educational stages. Most of the respondents were aged 50 or older (45%), followed by a group aged 41-50 (31%) and by a group aged <40 (24%). We used path analysis to test the impact that COVID-19 had, according to teachers, on teaching methods (Model 1) and social relationships (Model 2). In both models, teachers' stress was positively directly associated with risk-perception of contracting SARS-CoV-2 (Model 1: β = 0.10; p < 0.001; Model 2: β = 0.09; p < 0.001). Additionally, we found an indirect path between teachers' stress and risk-perception of contracting SARS-CoV-2 on the one hand, and perception of effectiveness of health measures on the other hand (Model 1: β = 0.02; p < 0.001; Model 2: β = 0.02; p < 0.001). These results suggest that, in emergencies, risk perception level, emotional regulation, and teachers' stress levels were all key factors affecting teaching methods and relationship quality in schools.

Sociodemographic and Digital Education Factors Are Associated to General Health, Coping Strategies, and Academic Outcomes of Undergraduate Students during the Post-Pandemic Period

The COVID-19 pandemic suddenly and forever changed the lives of many undergraduate students around the globe, forcing them to switch to online learning while undergoing social confinement within their homes. It is now well-established that this prolonged period of uncertainty impacted students’ well-being, health, and academic achievement. However, how student-related factors, such as coping strategies as well as sociodemographic, contextual, and technological variables, are linked to digital education factors is currently less understood. Using multiple regression analysis, this study investigates the results of an online questionnaire administered to students from two universities in southern Italy, differing in positioning and size, as well as policies and attitude towards digital learning. The results of this study show the positive effects of expertise with digital devices and university digital learning policies on students’ perceived general health. Conversely, isolation and lack of relational connectedness negatively impacted students’ health. Furthermore, this study highlights the role of different coping strategies, demonstrating that active forms of coping have a positive effect on students’ health, whereas avoidance strategies have the opposite effect. Taken together, this study provides crucial links between the many factors influencing students’ experience with online learning and health, and provides useful indications to promote the uptake of and adaptation to online learning.

Modeling Electronic-Cigarette Users' Risk Information Avoidance

The current study examined e-cigarette users' risk information avoidance (i.e., RIA), which is a significant challenge to e-cigarette risk communication. Applying and extending previous RIA studies and the risk information seeking and processing (RISP) model, this study identified the predictors of e-cigarette users' RIA with a comprehensive model that incorporated new roles for scientific uncertainty and relevant channel beliefs. Responses collected from an online survey were analyzed (N = 593) and support was found for two pathways that explain e-cigarette users' motivation for RIA. One suggests heightened risk perceptions were associated with strong negative affective responses that include fear, anger, sadness, and guilt. These affective responses, in turn, were positively associated with RIA intentions. The second was a direct, positive association between scientific uncertainty and RIA as well as an indirect path mediated by relevant channel beliefs. More specifically, scientific uncertainty was negatively associated with quality perceptions of e-cigarette information making it more likely e-cigarette users would avoid it. Suggestions for how to prevent or mitigate these processes that result in e-cigarette users' maladaptive response of RIA are discussed.

The impact of social media on risk perceptions during COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia

Background

Social media is considered a critical source for seeking health information, especially during outbreaks. During the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, social media played an important role in disseminating information. However, it has been a source of misinformation in many communities throughout the pandemic. Whether this disseminated information has a positive or negative impact, individuals' risk perceptions of disease are influenced. It is important to explore factors that build public behaviors and their adaptation of risk reduction measures during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the role of social media and its impact on the risk perceptions of the COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study, and participants were recruited using different social media outlets between August to October 2020. The survey was delivered through Qualtrics platform targeting Saudi Arabian residents over the age of 18 years old. The questionnaire was delivered in English and Arabic. A convenience sampling was used to recruit participants to the study. The survey link was posted on several social media platforms.

Results

A total of 2,680 respondents completed the online survey. The results showed that male gender, individuals earning 4,000-12,000 SAR, and employed had positive and significant relationships with risk perception compared to their counterparts (β: 0.044, p-value: 0.035 and β: 0.051, p-value: 0.041, β: 0.108 p-value: < 0.001, β: 0.119 p-value: < 0.001), respectively. In second block, individuals exposed to social media had higher risk perception (β: 0.096, p-value < 0.001). In third block, self-efficacy was significantly but negatively associated with risk perception, indicating individuals who were self-efficient were less likely to perceive risk for the COVID-19 (β: -0.096, p-value < 0.001). There was no interactive effect of social media and self-efficacy on risk perception.

Conclusion

The current study results show that social media exposure to the COVID-19 information has a positive impact in shaping an individuals' risk perception. The study also suggests that there is a need for public officials and policymakers to develop effective communication strategies through risk communication campaigns targeted at women, individuals with lower socioeconomic status, and those who are single as they showed a negative relationship with risk perception.

Perceived risk of contracting COVID-19 among healthcare workers in Ghana: A cross-sectional study

Background and Aims

The COVID-19 pandemic has stretched many healthcare systems, and it is having detrimental impacts on healthcare workers at the forefront, fighting to save lives. This study sought to assess the relationship between job factors and the perceived risk of contracting COVID-19 at the workplace among healthcare workers and how the relationships are augmented when sociodemographic characteristics are taken into consideration in a limited resource setting (Ghana).

Methods

A cross-sectional survey of 455 respondents was conducted.

Results

Overall, 5.93% of the respondents perceived low risk of contracting COVID-19 while 69.45% and 24.62% perceived medium and high risks of contracting COVID-19 at the workplace, respectively. The odds of a high perceived risk versus the combined medium and low perceived risk of contracting COVID-19 at the workplace was 0.461 times lower for healthcare workers who rated their workplace safety systems as good and 0.515 and 0.170 times lower for healthcare workers who indicated occasional and frequent work environment situational assessment (situational awareness), respectively. The odds of high perceived risk were 2.239 times higher for workers who are always emotionally fatigued and 1.829 times higher for healthcare workers who frequently contribute personally to workplace decision-making. The perceived risk of contracting COVID-19 at the workplace was also 1.780 times higher for healthcare workers with tertiary education.

Conclusion

In terms of health and safety at work, this study recommends that there should be an improvement in implementing safety protocols at health facilities to increase the confidence of healthcare workers. Furthermore, social and psychological support and work environment situational assessment, which can reduce stress and anxiety levels among the healthcare workers, should be implemented if contributing factors such as working outside their area of expertise or job scope cannot be eliminated.

Effectiveness of message framing in changing COVID-19 vaccination intentions: Moderating role of travel desire

This research examines the effectiveness of message framing, message appeal and information content in changing respondents' COVID-19 vaccination intentions through influencing their vaccine risk perceptions. Furthermore, the moderating effect of travel desire on the relationship between vaccine risk perceptions and changing vaccination intentions is examined. In doing so, two rounds of data that were collected from the same respondents. The first survey recorded respondents' vaccination intentions, travel desire and socio demographics. A follow up survey tested cause-and-effect relationships on the proposed relationships using a 2 (message frame: gain, loss) x 2 (message appeal: rational, emotional) ×2 (information content: subjective, objective) between-subjects online experimental design. Findings suggest that loss-framed messages are more effective than gain-framed and emotional-rational messages in reducing risk perceptions and, thus, changing vaccination intentions. Travel desire is found to moderate the effect of vaccine risk perception on vaccination intentions by weakening the negative effect of vaccine risk perception on vaccination intention. Findings show the importance of travel desire along with message framing and message appeal on changing individuals' COVID-19 vaccination intentions in public health communications.

The COVID-19 Stress Perceived on Social Distance and Gender-Based Implications

The COVID-19 pandemic is an unprecedented event entailing long-term consequences on population health and welfare. Those who contracted the coronavirus may have suffered from both physical and mental health issues that unfold the need for tailored intervention strategies. Hence, our study aims to investigate the psychological and social consequences of COVID-19 on a sample of 86 participants, encompassing 43 patients (clinical group; 25 women; mean age = 50.4 ± 10.1 years) recruited from Bari University Hospital, 19 of whom were hospitalized due to the disease. The remaining 43 were individuals not fallen ill with COVID-19 to date (control group; 25 women; mean age = 50.4 ± 10.1 years). The investigation yielded significant gender differences in post-traumatic stress symptoms, depression, and representation of interpersonal distance (IPD), evaluated through the IES-R, the BDI-II, and the IVAS task, respectively. This pattern of results was not replicated in the control group. In general, participants who reported having experienced the most intense post-traumatic symptoms also presented a greater mood deflection and, more specifically, within the clinical group women obtained the highest scores on both scales. Women reported higher IES-R and BDI-II scores compared to men, that could indicate that women who have contracted COVID-19 are more exposed to post-traumatic and depressive symptoms. Our results also showed a significant effect of COVID-19 on IPD with a tendency of disease-experienced individuals to increase their preferred IPD from adults, children, and elderly people. Regarding gender differences in mood and proxemic behavior, a correlation between depressive symptoms and probable PTSD and a further correlation between probable PTSD and greater IPD were found in women from both clinical and control group. Overall, these findings might contribute to a better understanding of gender-based implications of the current pandemic on mental health, also leading to the development of integrated yet personalized intervention strategies.

Social media exposure assessment: influence on attitudes toward generic vaccination during the COVID-19 pandemic

Purpose

Even though social media (SM) has been explored in-depth, its role remains unclear regarding short- and long-term preventive attitudes in global health emergencies. To fill this gap, the Stimulus-Organism-Response framework aims to clarify the social media exposure mission in acknowledging risk perception and triggering preventive attitudes and behaviors toward COVID-19 and general vaccination.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors conducted an explanatory-predictive study on 480 Romanian students, using partial least squares structural equation modeling, and performed model evaluation, multi-group, model selection, and importance-performance map analyses.

Findings

The study provides insights in understanding significant relationships and drivers explaining and predicting attitudes towards vaccines. The main relationships are between fear and risk perception; risk and preventive attitudes and behaviors; and vaccination degree and attitudes to vaccines. The most important factor is the vaccination degree and media exposure is the most performant.

Practical implications

Developing and applying regulations and communication strategies for quality mass information may positively increase attitudes toward vaccines by indirectly enforcing the main drivers.

Social implications

Organizations, authorities, and opinion leaders must have a coherent supportive presence in media.

Originality/value

This study filled the literature gap by building a generic theoretical and empirical proven framework that investigates the mediated effect towards vaccines of all media types by COVID-19 experience and vaccination degree.

Peer review

The peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/OIR-11-2021-0621

From warning messages to preparedness behavior: The role of risk perception and information interaction in the Covid-19 pandemic

During infectious disease outbreaks, early warning is crucial to prevent and control the further spread of the disease. While the different waves of the Covid-19 pandemic have demonstrated the need for continued compliance, little is known about the impact of warning messages and risk perception on individual behavior in public health emergencies. To address this gap, this paper uses data from the second wave of Covid-19 in China to analyse how warning information influences preventive behavior through four categories risk perception and information interaction. Drawing on the protective action decision model (PADM) and the social amplification of risk framework (SARF), risk warning information (content, channel, and type), risk perception (threat perception, hazard- and resource-related preparedness behavior perception and stakeholder perception), information interaction, and preparedness behavior intention are integrated into a comprehensive model. To test our model, we run a survey with 724 residents in Northern China. The results show that hazard-related preparedness behavior perception and stakeholder perception act as mediators between warning and preventive action. Stakeholder perception had much stronger mediating effects than the hazard-related attributes. In addition, information interaction is effective in increasing all categories risk perception, stimulating public response, while functioning as a mediator for warning. The risk warning information content, channel, and type are identified as key drivers of risk perception. The research found that information channel was more related to different risk perception than other characteristics. Overall, these associations in our model explain core mechanisms behind compliance and allow policy-makers to gain new insights into preventive risk communication in public health emergencies.

COVID-19 Related Fear, Risk Perceptions, and Behavioral Changes According to Level of Depression among Nursing Students

Depression may have a negative impact on health behaviors during crisis situations, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Accordingly, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of depression felt by nursing students on their infectious disease response. A total of 241 nursing students from two nursing colleges in Chungcheong Province was convenience sampled between 2 and 12 December 2020. The tools used in the study were the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 Korean version, Fear of COVID-19 Scale, COVID-19-related risk perceptions, and COVID-19 behavior changes. The depression group showed higher fear scores and lower behavioral change scores than the non-depression group. Such findings indicated that the depression group did not actively perform COVID-19-related preventive behaviors. With respect to the influencing factors of depression, depression scores were 2.28 times higher among sophomores than seniors; fear scores were 1.09 times higher in the depression group than the non-depression group; and behavioral change scores were 0.87 times lower in the depression group than the non-depression group. Based on the findings in the present study, it is necessary to screen nursing students with depression during disaster crisis situations, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, and provide active psychological support to such students for their mental health care.

Risk Perception towards COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Qualitative Synthesis

Several studies have attempted to identify how people's risk perceptions differ in regard to containing COVID-19 infections. The aim of the present review was to illustrate how risk awareness towards COVID-19 predicts people's preventive behaviors and to understand which features are associated with it. For the review, 77 articles found in six different databases (ProQuest, PsycInfo, PubMed, Science Direct, SCOPUS, and Web of Science) were considered, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines was followed, and data synthesis was conducted using a mixed-methods approach. The results indicate that a high-risk perception towards COVID-19 predicts, in general, compliance with preventive behaviors and social distancing measures. Additionally, risk awareness was found to be associated with four other key themes: demographic factors, individual factors, geographical factors, and timing. Therefore, gaining a greater understanding of individual and cultural differences as well as how people behave could be the basis of an effective strategy for raising public risk awareness and for countering COVID-19.

Determinants and Willingness to Pay for Purchasing Mask against COVID-19: A Protection Motivation Theory Perspective

Currently, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is spreading globally, which poses great challenges to the whole world and human beings. The aim of this research is to understand the determinants and residents' willingness to pay (WTP) for purchasing masks against COVID-19 in China. On the basis of protection motivation theory and contingent value method, this research shows that most residents are willing to purchase masks against COVID-19. COVID-19 knowledge, perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, and response efficacy are positively and significantly associated with residents' WTP and the WTP value. However, self-efficacy is only significantly associated with residents' WTP while not with WTP value. Furthermore, compared with other residents, residents in Hubei province have a higher level of COVID-19 knowledge, perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, self-efficacy and response efficacy, and the WTP value is higher. The average value of residents' WTP value for purchasing masks against COVID-19 in Hubei province is ¥120.92 ($18.73) per month during the epidemic, while it is ¥100.16 ($15.50) for other residents. In addition, the effects of demographic factors such as age, gender, income, etc., on residents' WTP and WTP value have also been examined.

Investigating COVID-19 risk perception and preventive behaviours in third-level students in Ireland

Objectives

The novel coronavirus outbreak required the population's compliance with public health measures yet young adults have been identified as having low risk perceptions and relatively low adherence with preventive measures. This study investigated third-level students' COVID-19 risk perception, knowledge and attitudes, and preventive behaviours between February and June 2021 to further understand young adults' beliefs and behavioural response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Ireland.

Design

Cross-sectional quantitative online survey design.

Methods

Three hundred and sixty-four university students completed an online survey which measured risk perception, preventive behaviours, knowledge of COVID-19, vaccination attitude and source of COVID-19 information.

Results

University students in Ireland reported high levels of knowledge of COVID-19 and high adherence to preventive behaviours. While risk perception levels were moderately high, students displayed higher concern for others than for themselves. High levels of risk perception significantly predicted preventive behaviours while general knowledge of the virus increased the likelihood of vaccine uptake. Over two-thirds of participants were willing to take the COVID-19 vaccine if available.

Conclusions

Vaccination hesitancy remains a concern among the young adult population requiring urgent attention from public health officials. The implication for health policymakers is that positive behavioural responses of the young population can be reinforced by targeting risk perceptions and by increasing the public's knowledge and understanding of COVID-19.

Risk perception and travel satisfaction associated with the use of public transport in the time of COVID-19. The case of Turin, Italy

The present study examined the association between risk perception and travel satisfaction related to the use of public transport (PT) during COVID-19 pandemic in Turin, Italy. A total of 448 PT users took part in an online survey conducted from January to March 2021. It investigated safety and risk perception related to the use of PT, and the users' subjective experience, measured through the Satisfaction with Travel Scale (STS). These perceptions were compared for three time scenarios: before the pandemic, during the pandemic, and in the future at the end of the pandemic emergency. Results showed that COVID-19 influenced respondents risk perception both during the pandemic and in their projections about the future, especially for females. The risk of contagion from COVID-19 is perceived as higher inside a PT vehicle than in the adjacent/waiting spaces. Regarding travel satisfaction, the overall scores of the STS indicated that the pandemic has impacted reported well-being while travelling, both now and in the future. The dimension of activation shifted towards the negative pole and did not indicate a return to risk perception before the pandemic levels at the end of the crisis (especially for females). Respondents reported a significant decrease in their level of pleasure and satisfaction during the pandemic, but expect that in the future these levels will go back to the levels previously experienced. Regarding travel satisfaction, PT users aged 36 to 50 years reported the highest level of satisfaction, while younger users (18 to 35 years) reported the lowest degree of satisfaction in all three time scenarios. Overall, the results clearly pinpoint that health-related perceived risk is becoming a key determinant for PT use. Within this context, different dimensions of travel satisfaction proved to be impacted differently by the pandemic, for both current and future scenarios.

COVID-19 Pandemic in Portugal: Psychosocial and Health-Related Factors Associated with Psychological Discomfort

The COVID-19 pandemic is a stressful long-lasting event with an increasingly negative impact upon individuals. This study aimed at assessing the magnitude of depression, anxiety, and stress among adults living in Portugal during the first mandatory lockdown of 2020, and the psychosocial and health-related factors associated with these symptoms. A sample of 484 adults (73% women) with an average age of 40 years old (Standard Deviation, SD = 14.03) responded to an online survey. The survey included measures of depression, anxiety, stress, social support, COVID-19 interference in daily life, attitudes towards COVID-19, and health perception. The impact of the lockdown on psychological well-being was large, with up to 36% of the participants showing signs of at least mild psychological discomfort (i.e., depression, anxiety, and stress). Social support, COVID-19 interference on daily life, health perception, and age, explained all the dependent variables. Education level, income, attitudes towards COVID-19, and gender explained some of the dependent variables. These results suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic has a serious impact on the psychological health of Portuguese adults. The role of the procedures to control the pandemic on the mental health of Portuguese adults should not be underestimated.

Risk Perception and Health Precautions Towards COVID-19 Among Older Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Adults in South Australia: A Cross-Sectional Survey

Background

Risk perceptions and precaution-taking against COVID-19 are affected by individuals' health status, psychosocial vulnerabilities and cultural dimensions. This cross-sectional study investigates risk perceptions associated with COVID-19 and specifically the problem- and emotion-focused health precautions of older, culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) South Australians.

Methods

Cross-sectional research involving self-administration of an online survey. Participants were CALD adults living in South Australia, aged 60 years and above (n = 155). Multi-indicator surveys were analyzed using Stata/MP version 13.0 and multiple linear regression models fitted to examine associations between risk perceptions and problem- and emotion-focused health precautions.

Results

Dread risk returned the highest mean score; COVID-19 was perceived as a catastrophe. Mean scores for fear showed that participants were worried about COVID-19 and scared of becoming infected. Participants followed health advice as they were worried [β 0.15; 95% CI 0.07, 0.23] and realized the effect of COVID-19 on them [β 0.15; 95% CI 0.02, 0.28], or worried and had trust in experts' knowledge and managing capacity [β 0.17; 95% CI 0.06, 0.28]. Age was negatively associated with sum-score of problem-focused coping: compared to participants aged 60-69 years, 80+ years revealed a decrease in problem-focused health precautions. Variables like education (primary schooling [β 2.80; 95% CI 0.05, 5.55] and bachelor degree [β 3.16; 95% CI 0.07, 6.25] versus no formal education), self-confidence in reducing risk, and fear [β 0.84; 95% CI 0.31, 1.36] significantly affected emotional-focused health precautions.

Conclusion

This local study has global implications. It showed that COVID-19 has psychosocial and environmental implications for older CALD adults. When many CALD populations have existing vulnerabilities to intersecting disadvantage, cultural-tailoring of interventions and pandemic response plans may buffer the effects of compounding disaster. Larger studies are needed to compare risk perception and health response patterns across countries and cultural groupings.

Risk Perception among Psychiatric Patients during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The fear of the new coronavirus infection has driven many non-COVID-19 patients away from essential healthcare. Our study aimed to investigate the perception of risk and feelings of danger for the contagion in a sample of Italian psychiatric patients. We conducted a cross-sectional observational study during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown in Italy. The risk perception and risk-related variables were assessed in a sample of 150 consecutive patients with a previous diagnosis of major depression (50), bipolar I disorder (50), and schizophrenia seeking ambulatory care using a questionnaire previously administered to the general Italian population. Our results showed that patients were more concerned about economic, psychological, and interpersonal consequences of COVID-19 pandemic, rather than about their own health. At the multiple regression analysis, the likelihood of COVID-19 resolution was positively influenced by the diagnosis of schizophrenia, the increased perceived effectiveness, and the presence of positive emotions. Indeed, positive emotions and uncertainty positively influenced interpersonal risk. Our study highlights the need to provide more support to psychiatric patients during emergency events to prevent them from engaging in risky behaviors.

Risk perception and behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic: Predicting variables of compliance with lockdown measures

The COVID-19 pandemic and the measures to counteract it have highlighted the role of individual differences in evaluating and reacting to emergencies, and the challenges inherent in promoting precautionary behaviours. We aimed to explore the psychological and cognitive factors modulating behaviour and intentions during the national lockdown in Italy. We administered an online questionnaire (N = 244) that included tests for assessing personality traits (Temperament and Character Inventory; Locus of Control of Behaviour) and moral judgment (Moral Foundations Questionnaire), alongside behavioural economics tasks addressing different facets of risk attitude (loss aversion, risk aversion and delay discounting). We then assessed the extent to which individual variations in these dimensions modulated participants' compliance with the lockdown norms. When assessing their joint contribution via multiple regressions, lockdown adherence was mostly predicted by internal locus of control, psycho-economic dimensions suggestive of long-sighted and loss-averse attitudes, as well as personality traits related to cautionary behaviour, such as harm avoidance, and the authority moral concern. These findings show that a multi-domain assessment of the factors underlying personal intentions, and thus driving compliance with government measures, can help predict individuals' actions during health emergencies. This evidence points to factors that should be considered when developing interventions and communication strategies to promote precautionary behaviours.

Components of Unrealistic Optimism of College Students: The Case of the COVID-19 Pandemic

College students are among the most strongly affected populations by the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic because of uncertainty regarding academic success, future careers, and social life during their study period. Their mental health and behavior may dramatically be impacted. The study examined an unrealistic optimism of Israeli college students in assessing the health, security, and economic risks during the pandemic, and the contributions of these perceived risks to the prediction of psychological coping responses, such as well-being, and coping suppressing response of anxiety, expressed during this pandemic. Using social networks, a questionnaire was disseminated to students during the third lockdown that was implemented in Israel because of the pandemic. Depressive and anxiety symptoms, perceived threats, resilience, well-being, hope, and morale were measured using a structured quantitative questionnaire. First, we hypothesized that the three perceived risks would be inversely rated, so perceived health risk would be rated lowest, and perceived economic risk would be rated highest. The second and third hypotheses claimed that psychological coping responses articulated along this pandemic would be predicted by all these perceived risks, as well as the observance of pandemic precaution rules. The fourth hypothesis suggested that the three investigated perceived risks will positively and significantly correlate with each other. The results generally supported the hypotheses and indicated that the unrealistic optimism process was employed quite consistently by the participating students.

Older People in Germany During the COVID-19 Pandemic:The Least, the More, and the Most Affected

Older people have been identified as a particularly vulnerable group during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the question of how older people actually fared during the COVID-19 pandemic has only been sporadically addressed. This article aims to partly fill this gap by classifying subgroups of older people using Latent Class Analysis. Indicators used are: risk perception, safety behavior, and well-being. To predict subgroup membership, age, gender, living arrangement, children, chronic illness, conflict, socioeconomic status, and migration history are controlled for. The data analyzed stem from a phone survey among 491 older people (75–100 years) in Germany conducted in September/October 2020. Results show that three subgroups of older people – the least, the more and the most affected – can be formed based on their risk perception, safety behavior, and well-being, indicating the usefulness of these three constructs for identifying and studying older people particularly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and the measures taken to contain it.

Insight on Knowledge, Risk Perception and Practices to Prevent the Spread of COVID-19: A Cross-Sectional Study among Italian University Students

Addressing adherence to non-pharmaceutical interventions among young adults represents a public health priority since this age group did not directly experience a health risk from COVID-19. The study aims were to investigate the level of knowledge, risk perception and practices to prevent the spread of COVID-19 among undergraduate university students in Southern Italy. This cross-sectional study was conducted between the 1st and 31st of July 2020. An anonymous and structured questionnaire was sent via institutional email. Among the 1323 sampled students, more than two-thirds gave the correct answer to all the knowledge statements. Good knowledge about COVID-19 showed a positive association with those studying medical or life sciences majors. Almost two-fifths (38.5%) of the sample declared to have quite a bit/extreme fear of falling ill with COVID-19 and it was significantly more likely among females and those with good knowledge. Only 30.2% of the students did not touch their face mask while using it. Moreover, practicing respiratory etiquette was more likely among females, among respondents with higher levels of fear of falling ill with COVID-19 and among those who exhibited good knowledge about COVID-19. The study insights will be valuable for the ongoing mitigation of the current pandemic especially with regard to the correct use of face masks.

Factors influencing protective behavior in the post-COVID-19 period in China: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The study aimed to explore the factors influencing protective behavior and its association with factors during the post-COVID-19 period in China based on the risk perception emotion model and the protective action decision model (PADM).

METHODS

A total of 2830 valid questionnaires were collected as data for empirical analysis via network sampling in China. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed to explore the relationships between the latent variables.

RESULTS

SEM indicated that social emotion significantly positively affected protective behavior and intention. Protective behavioral intention had significant direct effects on protective behavior, and the direct effects were also the largest. Government trust did not have a significant effect on protective behavior but did have a significant indirect effect. Moreover, it was found that government trust had the greatest direct effect on social emotion. In addition, we found that excessive risk perception level may directly reduce people's intention and frequency of engaging in protective behavior, which was not conducive to positive, protective behavior.

CONCLUSION

In the post-COVID-19 period, theoretical framework constructed in this study can be used to evaluate people's protective behavior. The government should strengthen its information-sharing and interaction with the public, enhance people's trust in the government, create a positive social mood, appropriately regulate people's risk perception, and, finally, maintain a positive attitude and intent of protection.

Older Adults' Risk Perception during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Lombardy Region of Italy: A Cross-sectional Survey

During COVID-19 pandemic, older adults are the segment of the population at higher health risk. Given the important role the risk perception has in influencing both the behaviors and psychological well-being, it appears useful exploring this factor in this segment of the population. Despite different studies already described the factors influencing the risk perception, few focused on older adults. For this reason, we investigated risk perception in 514 people over 60 years during the lockdown. We administered a structured interview collecting socio-demographic information, sources of information used, actions undertaken to avoid contagion, and risk perception. Risk perception related to COVID-19 was significantly lower than the perceived risk associated with other threats, and it was correlated to the number of sources of information used but not to the actions undertaken. Furthermore, we found higher risk perception in who knew infected persons, and a negative correlation between the risk perception and age, with the over 75 perceiving a lower risk of getting infected compared to the younger participants. Our results should be taken as informative for future studies. Indeed, further studies on the older adults and the risk perception during emergencies are needed to better orient both communication and supporting strategies.

Associations between Personality Traits, Intolerance of Uncertainty, Coping Strategies, and Stress in Italian Frontline and Non-Frontline HCWs during the COVID-19 Pandemic-A Multi-Group Path-Analysis

The COVID-19 pandemic represented a very difficult physical and psychological challenge for the general population and even more for healthcare workers (HCWs). The main aim of the present study is to test whether there were significant differences between frontline and non-frontline Italian HCWs concerning (a) personality traits, intolerance of uncertainty, coping strategies and perceived stress, and (b) the models of their associations. A total of 682 Italian HCWs completed a self-report questionnaire: 280 employed in COVID-19 wards and 402 in other wards. The analysis of variance omnibus test revealed significant differences between the two groups only for perceived stress, which was higher among the frontline. The multi-group path analysis revealed significant differences in the structure of the associations between the two groups of HCWs, specifically concerning the relations between: personality traits and intolerance of uncertainty; intolerance of uncertainty and coping strategies. Regarding the relation between coping strategies and stress no difference was identified between the two groups. In both of them, emotionally focused coping was negatively related with perceived stress, whereas dysfunctional coping was positively related with stress. These results could be useful in planning actions aiming to reduce stress and improve the effectiveness of HCWs' interventions. Training programs aimed to provide HCWs with a skillset to tackle uncertain and stressful circumstances could represent an appropriate support to develop a preventive approach during outbreaks.

Risk perceptions of COVID-19 and its impact on precautionary behavior: A qualitative study

OBJECTIVE

The controlling of the COVID-19 pandemic is influenced by the precautionary behavior of the community, and such behavior is frequently related to individuals' risk perception. The current study aimed to explore risk perceptions and precautionary behavior in response to COVID-19.

METHOD

Qualitative in-depth interviews by telephone were undertaken with 26 participants from three affected cities in an initial stage of the disease outbreak, from May 3 to June 5, 2020. The method of analyzing data was inductive. The results were analyzed using interpretation, categorizing, and thematic analysis.

RESULTS

The perception of risk is influenced by numerous individual, community, and cultural factors; these perceptions act as triggers for precautionary behavior, with a tendency to deny risks or react with exaggeration in terms of the precautionary reactions related to COVID-19. The thematic analysis produced two major categories: 1) risk perception and 2) precautionary behavior. The analysis provides essential insight into risk perception and precautionary behavior.

CONCLUSION

The risk perceptions and patterns of precautionary behavior could be unreliable, unhealthy, and culturally affected, which would influence the effectiveness of pandemic control measures. Further investigations with more data and including risk perception and precautionary behavior in the national response plan for emergency and crisis are highly recommended.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

A greater understanding and ongoing assessment of COVID-19 risk perception could inform policymakers and health professionals who seek to promote precautionary behavior. This could also facilitate early interventions during pandemics.

"Every day is just kind of weighing my options." Perspectives of young adult cancer survivors dealing with the uncertainty of the COVID-19 global pandemic

Purpose

We explored adolescent and young adult cancer survivor (AYA) experiences with COVID-19 to understand the impact of living through a pandemic, unmet needs, and coping strategies.

Methods

AYAs were recruited nationally, completed an online survey, and attended one of six online focus groups. We used qualitative content analysis to analyze focus group data.

Results

Thirty-nine AYAs completed the survey, and 24 also participated in the focus groups. In the survey, AYAs responded that COVID-19 increased anxiety about their health or their family’s health, feelings of isolation, and worries about job security. Overarching focus group themes included AYA behavioral responses to the pandemic similar to their peers, the added burden of cancer, and unexpected advantages of a cancer history. When discussing the added burden of cancer, subthemes included difficulties and delays in medical care, mental health stressors, and compounding uncertainty. Unexpected advantages of a cancer history included relying on coping strategies developed during active treatment and resiliency from practicing social distancing during treatment.

Conclusions

AYAs have struggled in the early pandemic in ways similar to their peers but with compounding uncertainty regarding their unknown risk due to cancer history. Healthcare providers and systems can better support AYAs by providing additional psychosocial supports, developing strategies to triage good candidates for telehealth, and providing information about cancer survivor-specific risks for COVID-19.

Implications for Cancer Survivors

Our findings indicate a need for psychosocial supports that address managing anxiety and uncertainty. AYAs may be able to draw on their cancer experiences to navigate the COVID-19 pandemic.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11764-021-01069-9.

Latent trait models for perceived risk assessment using a Covid-19 data survey

Aim of the contribution is analyzing potential events that may negatively impact individuals, assets, and/or the environment, and making judgments about the perceived personal and social riskiness of Covid-19 compared to other hazards belonging to health (AIDS, cancer, infarction), environmental (climate change), behavioral (serious car accidents), and technological (nuclear weapons) domains. The comparative risk analysis has been performed on a survey data collected during the first Italian Covid-19 lockdown. An item response theory model for polytomously scored items has been implemented for the analysis of the positioning of Covid-19 with respect to the other hazards in terms of perceived risk. Among the attributes determining the hazard's perceived risk, Covid-19 distinguishes for the knowledge of risks from the hazard, media attention, and fear caused by the hazard in the peers. Besides, through a latent regression analysis, the role of some individual characteristics on the perceived risk for Covid-19 has been examined. Our contribution allows us to disentangle among several aspects of hazards and describe the main factors affecting the perceived risk. It also contributes to determine if existing control measures are perceived as adequate and the interest for new media with related impact on a person's reaction.

Emotional and Cognitive Responses to COVID-19 Information Overload under Lockdown Predict Media Attention and Risk Perceptions of COVID-19

The present study examined positive and negative effects of health communication on the fight against the COVID-19 under lockdown, during the first wave of the pandemic in Greece. An online survey (N = 1,199) examined the relationships among media trust, emotional and cognitive reactions to COVID-19 information overload, media attention, and risk perceptions regarding COVID-19. Participants' media attention (exposure and attention combined) to information about the pandemic was positively related to their risk perceptions (perceived susceptibility and severity) about the disease. Media attention was dependent on participants' trust in the media as valid sources of information, but also on their cognitive and emotional reactions to COVID-19 information overload. In response to this overload, they produced negative thoughts and more negative (fear and anger) than positive (protection) emotions. These distinct reactions had differential effects on media attention and risk perceptions. Fear and protection were positively related to media attention and risk perceptions, while anger and negative thinking undermined attention and perceptions. Furthermore, all reactions depended on media trust, which mediated the effect on media attention. These findings highlighted desirable and some undesirable effects of health communication in the fight against COVID-19, which can be used to improve health communication in the future.

Beneficial Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Training on the Well-Being of a Female Sample during the First Total Lockdown Due to COVID-19 Pandemic in Italy

The global pandemic caused by COVID-19 and the subsequent lockdown have been widely recognized as traumatic events that pose threats to psychological well-being. Recent studies reported that during such traumatic events, women tend to be at greater risk than men for developing symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression. Several studies reported that a mindfulness-based stress reduction protocol (MBSR) provides useful skills for dealing with traumatic events. In our study, a sample of Italian females received an 8-week MBSR course plus 6 weeks of video support for meditation practice during the first total lockdown in Italy. We assessed the participants with questionnaires before and after this period to investigate their mindfulness skills, psychological well-being, post-traumatic growth, and psychological flexibility. After the intervention, the meditators group reported improvement in measures associated with self-acceptance, purpose in life, and relation to others compared to the control group. Furthermore, our results showed that participants with greater mindfulness scores showed high levels of psychological flexibility, which in turn was positively associated with higher levels of psychological well-being. We concluded that the MBSR could support psychological well-being, at least in female subjects, even during an unpredictable adverse event, such as the COVID-19 lockdown, by reinforcing key psychological aspects.

Boldness Personality Traits Are Associated With Reduced Risk Perceptions and Adoption of Protective Behaviors During the First COVID-19 Outbreak

The containment measures imposed during the first COVID-19 outbreak required economic, social, and behavioral changes to minimize the spread of the coronavirus. Some studies have focused on how personality predicts distinct patterns of adherence to protective measures with psychopathic and antisocial traits predicting reduced engagement in such measures. In this study we extended previous findings by analyzing how boldness, meanness, and disinhibition psychopathic traits relate with both risk perceptions and protective behaviors during the first COVID-19 outbreak. A sample of 194 individuals (24% male) engaged in the survey, were assessed for psychopathic traits with the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure, and completed a COVID-19 survey targeting risk perceptions (spread, risk of becoming infected, state anxiety toward the COVID-19, and perceived risk of specific behaviors) and frequency of protective behaviors (e.g., not engaging in social distancing). Overall results show that boldness predicts reduced estimate of COVID-19 spread, reduced perceived risk of becoming infected, reduced state anxiety toward COVID-19, and reduced frequency of protective behaviors. Exploratory mediation models suggest that risk perceptions are not significant mediators of the association between psychopathic traits and reduced engagement in protective behaviors. Our results unveil that psychopathic traits affect risk perceptions and the propensity to engage in protective measures, emphasizing the need to accommodate these personality features in the public health strategy to control the COVID-19 spread.