Self-Reported Illicit Drug Use Among Norwegian University and College Students. Associations With Age, Gender, and Geography

Epidemiology of classic psychedelic substances: results from a Norwegian internet convenience sample

Objective

In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in investigating the use of classic psychedelics such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in the treatment of mental disorders and substance use disorders. However, knowledge about the epidemiology of classic psychedelics in the Nordic countries is limited.

Methods

We recruited adult, Norwegian participants who have had a memorable experience after taking a classic psychedelic substance. They filled in an anonymous internet survey with 119 items covering matters related to recreational use of psychedelics using a secure, web-based application. Data are presented by using descriptive statistics (frequencies, means, and standard deviations).

Results

We recruited 841 participants, 770 (72% male; 88% 45 years or younger) of which were included in the data analysis. The intentions behind taking the psychedelic substance were mainly recreational (46.1%) or therapeutic (42.3%). Most participants reported that their most memorable experience was with psilocybin. As in modern era clinical trials, most participants were well-prepared before, did processing during, and did integration work after the experience, whereas only a minority were supported by a therapist. Self-perceived symptoms of various mental disorders and substance use disorders were prevalent in the sample. Most subjects reported improvements in their condition. Although adverse reactions were usually mild and short-lived, 4.2% lasted for 1 year or more. Persisting flashbacks were present for a year or more among 2.9% of the participants.

Conclusion

In this cross-sectional sample of Norwegian, self-selecting adults, we shed light on what characterizes the most memorable experience with a classic psychedelic substance, including short- and long-term risks and benefits. For the most part, the psychedelic experience led to improvements in self-perceived symptoms of mental disorders and substance use disorders. However, a small subset experienced persisting adverse reactions.

Narcotic offences and drug use disorders among young refugees in Norway

AIMS

We examined the patterns of healthcare utilisation for drug use disorders (DUDs) and charges related to narcotics among young refugees in Norway considering the role of sex, country of origin and condition of arrival (accompanied versus unaccompanied minors).

METHODS

Based on national registers, sex-stratified Cox regression models were used to estimate hazard ratios to assess the risk of being charged with a narcotics offence and the use of healthcare services related to DUDs. The sample consisted of 15,068 young refugees and 573,241 young Norwegians born in Norway to two Norwegian-born parents. All of the young people in the sample were born between 1983 and 1994. The follow-up period was from January 2008 to December 2015.

RESULTS

Compared with their Norwegian peers, both male and female refugees showed either a similar or lower risk of receiving healthcare for DUDs. However, male refugees showed an increased risk of being charged with a narcotic offence, except those from Afghanistan and the former Yugoslavia. Accompanied male refugees were at a higher risk of being charged, while unaccompanied male refugees showed a lower risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Young male refugees generally had a higher risk of being charged for narcotic offences while showing a similar risk of receiving healthcare for DUDs compared to Norwegian-born young people. However, young men from Afghanistan and the former Yugoslavia deviated from this pattern. This may be partially explained by the length of time spent in Norway. The results add support to previous qualitative studies suggesting that punitive drug policies may disproportionately affect men from minority groups. Further research controlling for parental household-level factors is warranted.

Toxic Habits and Well-Being Measures in Spanish Healthcare University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic

BACKGROUND

Unhealthy lifestyles are strongly entrenched in healthcare universities and have sometimes been linked to stress or lack of sleep. This study investigated the prevalence of toxic habits (smoking, patterns of harmful alcohol use, and illicit drug use), stress levels, perceived health status, and sleep duration and assessed the connections between toxic habits and said well-being measures, as well as healthcare students' perception of the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on these health-related behaviors.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional study, healthcare students from Alfonso X University (Spain) completed a health survey composed of Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT-C), Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10), self-perceived health status, and the number of hours of sleep.

RESULTS

A total of 997 healthcare students completed the survey, of which 982 were analyzed. Being a smoker (32.2%) was associated with worse health status and insufficient sleep. Risk drinkers (33.2%) were associated with being female, and the consumption of cannabinoids (6.7%), with being male. These three toxic habits were related to each other. High levels of stress (28.2%) were correlated with worse ratings in the perception of health status (29.2%) and with insufficient sleep (45.8%), and all of them were associated with the female sex. Respectively, 49.3% and 44.2% of students recognized a worsening in their perception of stress and their sleep habits during the pandemic.

CONCLUSION

Healthcare universities must carry out health promotion programs for stress management, sleep habits, and unhealthy lifestyles.

Prevalence of Drug and Substance Use among Malaysian Youth: A Nationwide Survey

Uncontrolled drug and substance use (DSU) may pose unprecedented threats to nation building and a country’s socioeconomic development. Despite considerable efforts made and resources used to address DSU concerns, Malaysia has seen a significant annual rise in cases of DSU. The bulk of the reported cases originate from youth between the ages of 15 and 40 years. To date, data related to DSU in Malaysia have been entirely dependent on operation statistics, arrest counts, and reported cases; DSU may therefore be under-reported and the data obtained not representative at the national level. This study aims to determine the prevalence of DSU among Malaysian youth through a large nationwide representative survey. Of the population of 11,129,316 youth aged 15–40 years, the prevalence of DSU among lifetime users was found to be 5.5%, while for those who had taken drugs in the past 30 days or who currently use them, the prevalence of DSU was found to be 3.5%. The most popular drugs for lifetime users were kratom or Mitragyna speciosa, while for current users the most popular drug was cannabis. The current study reports the magnitude of the problem at a country-wide level, which is a crucial preliminary effort for crafting evidence-based and well-informed policies.

The gendered relationship between illicit substance use and self-harm in university students

PURPOSE

To estimate associations between multiple forms of substance use with self-harming thoughts and behaviours, and to test whether gender is an effect modifier of these associations, both independently and along with perceived risk of cannabis use.

METHODS

Data were drawn from the 2018 Norwegian Students' Health and Wellbeing Study (SHoT 2018). A national sample of n = 50,054 full-time Norwegian students (18-35 years) pursuing higher education completed a cross-sectional student health survey, including questions on past-year self-harm: non-suicidal thoughts of self-harm, non-suicidal self-harm, suicidal thoughts, and suicide attempt. Students reported their frequency of past-year alcohol use (range: never to ≥ 4 times/ week), illicit substance consumption, and perceived risk of cannabis use. The AUDIT and CAST screening tools measured problematic alcohol and cannabis consumption, respectively. We used logistic regression modelling adjusted for age, symptoms of depression and anxiety, and financial hardship (analytic sample range: n = 48,263 to n = 48,866).

RESULTS

The most frequent alcohol consumption category (≥ 4 times/ week) was nearly always associated with more than a two-fold increased likelihood of self-harm. Less frequent alcohol consumption was associated with reduced odds of suicidal thoughts [monthly or less: OR = 0.87 (95% CI: 0.75-1.00), 2-4 times/month: OR = 0.79 (95% CI: 0.69-0.91), and 2-3 times/ week: OR = 0.83 (95% CI: 0.71-0.98)]. Problematic alcohol consumption was associated with most outcomes: odds ranging from 1.09 (95% CI: 1.01-1.18) for suicidal thoughts to 1.33 (95% CI: 1.00-1.77) for suicide attempt. There was evidence of multiple illicit substance by gender interactions: consumption of all but one illicit substance category (other drug use) was associated with all four forms of self-harm for women, but findings among men were less clear. Among men, only one illicit substance category (stimulant) was associated with most forms of self-harm. Women, but not men, who perceived cannabis use as a health risk were more likely to experience non-suicidal thoughts as cannabis consumption increased, and with harmful consumption patterns.

CONCLUSION

Frequent alcohol consumption is associated with increased risk of self-harm and suicidality for young women and men. Associations between illicit substance use and self-harm and suicidality appear stronger in women compared to men.

Who uses digital drugs? An international survey of 'binaural beat' consumers

INTRODUCTION

Digital drugs, or binaural beats claimed to elicit specific cognitive or emotional states, are a phenomenon about which little is known. In this brief report, we describe demographic and drug use correlates of binaural beat use, patterns of use, reasons for use and methods of access.

METHODS

The Global Drug Survey 2021 was translated into 11 languages; 30 896 responses were gathered from 22 countries.

RESULTS

The use of binaural beats to experience altered states was reported by 5.3% of the sample (median age 27; 60.5% male), with the highest rates from the United States, Mexico, Brazil, Poland, Romania and the United Kingdom. Controlling for all variables, age and non-male gender predicted binaural beat use, as did the recent use of cannabis, psychedelics and novel/new drugs. Respondents most commonly used binaural beats 'to relax or fall asleep' (72.2%) and 'to change my mood' (34.7%), while 11.7% reported trying 'to get a similar effect to that of other drugs'. This latter motivation was more commonly reported among those who used classic psychedelics (16.5% vs. 7.9%; P < 0.001). The majority sought to connect with themselves (53.1%) or 'something bigger than themselves' (22.5%) through the experience. Binaural beats were accessed primarily through video streaming sites via mobile phones.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This paper establishes the existence of the phenomenon of listening to binaural beats to elicit changes in embodied and psychological states. Future research directions include the cultural context for consumption and proximate experiences, including co-use with ingestible drugs and other auditory phenomena.

Psychological Distress and Use of Psychotropic Drugs Among University Students-the SHoT Study, Norway

Background: Students pursuing higher education are struggling with psychological distress, which in turn may negatively affect their academic self-efficacy and study progress. Although psychotropic drug use is widespread and increasing, patterns of psychotropic drug use among students are not well-known. Aim: To describe prevalence and gender differences in psychotropic drug use among Norwegian students in higher education, and to examine associations with level of psychological distress. Methods: The study is based on data from the Norwegian Student's Health and Well-being Study (SHoT), 2018, a national survey including all fulltime students aged 18-35 years in higher education. Our sample included 49,836 students, 69% females. Use of psychotropic drugs and psychological distress (The Hopkins Symptoms Checklist [HSCL-25]) were self-reported. Generalised linear models were used to assess associations between psychological distress and psychotropic drug use. Results: Psychotropic drug use was more frequent among female than male students: 4 vs. 2% daily antidepressants usage; 5 vs. 3% last month use of anxiolytics/tranquillisers; and 8 vs. 5% last month use of hypnotics. In contrast, male students reported use of performance enhancing drugs more often than females (7 vs. 5%). Adjusted associations between high level of psychological distress (HSCL-25 ≥ 2.0) and use of psychotropics, showed an about 2-fold increased relative risk, largely consequent across drug classes and genders. Conclusion: Prevalence and gender patterns of intake of the most common psychotropic drug classes among Norwegian students are comparable to previous studies. Unexpectedly, among students with moderate to severe psychological distress, the patterns of psychotropic drug use were more or less identical between genders.

Cannabis use among Norwegian university students: Gender differences, legalization support and use intentions, risk perceptions, and use disorder

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Past year cannabis use was fairly common in a sample of Norwegian college students.

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About 6% of users possibly met criteria for use disorder, function of use frequency.

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Legalization attitudes and risk perceptions were associated with cannabis use risk.

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Intentions to use cannabis if legal were evident even among some current non-users.

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Many non-users expressed uncertainty in legalization attitudes and risk perceptions.

Aims

We explored past-year cannabis use and associated characteristics, focusing on legalization attitudes, use intentions, risk perceptions, and possible dependence among Norwegian university/college students.

Methods

We examined a nation-wide sample of Norwegian university/college students (N = 49,688; 67% female) who participated in the Students’ Health and Wellbeing Study (SHoT-study) in 2018. Participants reported past-year substance use, support for cannabis legalization, intent to use cannabis if legal, and perceived risks of weekly use. Past-year cannabis use (including use frequency) was examined in relation to these indicators. Legalization support, use intentions, and risk perceptions were examined in relation to use and gender. Potential cannabis use disorder was assessed with the Cannabis Abuse Screening Test (CAST) and examined in relation to use frequency and gender.

Findings

Past-year use was reported by 15.3% (11.8% women; 22.9% men). Majority of current users (roughly 90%) used no more than 50 times past year, and 6% (3.8% women; 8.5% men) met CAST use disorder criteria. Legalization support, use intentions, and no/low risk perceptions were significantly associated with greater odds of use, and greater use frequency among current users in both crude and adjusted models. Legalization support (23.0%), use intentions (14.0%), and perceptions of no/low risk (29.2%) were also relatively common even among current non-users, especially men. Male gender and more frequent use were associated with greater CAST scores and greater odds of use disorder.

Conclusions

Cannabis use was relatively common in this student sample. In addition to targeting frequent use, interventions may focus on cannabis-related attitudes and risk perceptions among uncertain/uninformed students.

Cocaine Rituals in Club Culture: Intensifying and Controlling Alcohol Intoxication

Clubbing is an important part of the nighttime economy, and cocaine use is, for some young people, an essential part of this clubbing culture. However, the interaction rituals around the use of powder cocaine in this context remain understudied. This study is based on qualitative interviews with young adult recreational cocaine users ( n = 28) and explores how they use cocaine in club settings, in relation to rituals and drinking culture. The analysis identified three main explanations for using cocaine: (a) unity with friends because of shared transgression, (b) the high as a “collective effervescence,” and (c) the possibility to control, extend, and intensify drinking to intoxication. These three explanations illustrate how cocaine rituals were deeply integrated in drinking-to-intoxication rituals, and how the illegality of cocaine use reinforced feelings of unity with friends. In the nighttime economy, cocaine use and its related rituals are used to intensify and control alcohol-fuelled partying.

Past Year Cannabis Use Among Norwegian Adolescents: Time Trends Based on the Ungdata Surveys 2010-2019

Aims: To describe trends in cannabis use from 2010 to 2019 among Norwegian adolescents and relate these to individual- and municipal-level variables. Design: Data from nationwide repeated cross-sectional surveys collected in 2010-2013 (T1), 2014-2016 (T2), and 2017-2019 (T3) were used to describe secular trends in proportions of adolescent cannabis use. Setting: Cross-sectional surveys in 410 of the total 428 municipalities of Norway. Participants: A total of 628,678 survey responses from adolescents aged ~13-19 years of age, in which 566,912 survey responses were eligible for analyses, representing data from 340 municipalities. Measurements: Respondent's past year cannabis use, time, gender, school grade, municipality, geographical location, and municipality population. Findings: Boys reported overall higher cannabis use, with ~2:1 gender ratio for any past year cannabis use and a 3:1 gender ratio for frequent cannabis use. Adolescents in Eastern Norway reported higher cannabis use compared with other areas in the country, and adolescents from municipalities with a higher population size reported higher rates of cannabis use than smaller municipalities. A gradual increase in cannabis use from T1 to T3 was found in Eastern Norway and in the largest municipalities. More generally, proportions of past year cannabis use showed a marked increase from T2 to T3 across genders, grade/age groups, geographical location, and municipality population, with few exceptions. Conclusions: Our findings indicate that proportions of past year cannabis use have increased among Norwegian adolescents in recent years. Preventive interventions to hinder initiation of cannabis use, as well as measures to address frequent cannabis use among Norwegian adolescents, are needed.

Prevalence and Correlates of Illicit Drug Use among Norwegian Nightlife Patrons

BACKGROUND

Nightclubs and bars are recreational settings with extensive availability and consumption of alcohol and recreational drugs.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to determine the proportion of nightclub patrons in Norway that tested positive for illicit drugs, moreover, we examined the correlation between positive test results and demographic and substance use characteristics.

METHODS

Patrons were recruited outside nightclubs on Friday and Saturday nights between 10:00 pm and 04:00 am. Substance use was determined by breath testing and oral fluid testing for alcohol and drugs, respectively, using accurate and specific analytical methods. Questionnaires recorded demographic and substance use characteristics.

RESULTS

Of the 1988 included nightclub patrons, 90% tested positive for alcohol, 14% for illicit drug use, and 3% for two or more illicit drugs. The proportion of patrons who tested positive for illicit drugs was highest in the early hours of the morning. Nine out of ten who tested positive for illicit drugs also consumed alcohol. Testing positive for one or more illicit drugs was most strongly correlated with being male and unemployed, using tobacco or other nicotine products, and early on-set illicit drug use; further the correlations were strongest among those who tested positive for two or more illicit drugs.Conclusions/Importance: Patrons who used illicit drugs before or during nightclub visits most often combined drug use with alcohol consumption. Substituting alcohol with cannabis or other drugs was not common in this cohort. The study results provide evidence to introduce harm-reduction prevention programs to address illicit drug and excessive alcohol consumption.