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Ciarloni R, Newbold KB. Air Pollution Health Literacy among Active Commuters in Hamilton, Ontario. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6282. [PMID: 37444129 PMCID: PMC10341318 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20136282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
The promotion of active transportation (AT), which has been broadly defined as a physical effort performed by the traveller to produce motion, has been a popular strategy to reduce vehicular emissions, improve air quality, and promote physical activity. However, individuals who engage in AT may incur increased exposure to air pollutants and thus potential health impacts. This research sought to determine how active commuters understand the health risks associated with air pollution during their commutes, and whether they engage in any behaviours to limit exposure. An online survey was adapted from the Environmental Health Literacy framework to assess air pollution health literacy among active commuters in Hamilton, ON, and generated a sample size of 192 AT users. Analyses involved the use of frequency tables and cross-tabulations for the quantitative data, and the Health Belief Model and thematic analysis to interpret the qualitative data. Results revealed that most AT users do not adopt behaviours that would limit air pollution exposure on commutes and exhibited low self-rated knowledge of the health impacts of air pollution exposure. Issues of perceived susceptibility and severity, barriers, cues to action, and self-efficacy all further impacted the likelihood of adopting health protective behaviours. Conclusively, air pollution is an often-neglected consideration among active commuters, with air pollution knowledge predicting the likelihood of behavioural modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reed Ciarloni
- School of Earth, Environment & Society, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - K. Bruce Newbold
- School of Earth, Environment & Society, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
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Westenhöfer J, Nouri E, Reschke ML, Seebach F, Buchcik J. Walkability and urban built environments-a systematic review of health impact assessments (HIA). BMC Public Health 2023; 23:518. [PMID: 36932349 PMCID: PMC10024446 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-023-15394-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Urban environments are important determinants of human health. The term walkability summarizes features of the urban built environment that promote walking and other types of physical activity. While the beneficial effects of active and public transport have been well established, the health impact of other features of walkability are less well documented. METHODS We conducted a systematic review of health impact assessments (HIAs) of walkability. Studies were identified through PUBMED and Science Direct, from two German websites related to urban health and reference tracking. Finally, 40 studies were included in the present review. We applied qualitative thematic analysis to summarize the major results from these studies. RESULTS Most of the HIAs (n = 31) reported the improvement of health or health behaviour resulting from an investigated project or policy. However, three HIAs reported a lack of improvement or even a decrease of health status. In parallel, 13 HIAs reported a gain in economic value, whereas one reported a lack or loss of economic effects. Moreover, three HIAs reported on social effects and six HIAs gave additional recommendations for policies or the implementation of projects or HIAs. CONCLUSIONS Most HIAs investigate the impact of increasing active or public transport. Other features of walkability are less well studied. With few exceptions, HIAs document beneficial impacts of improving walkability on a variety of health outcomes, including reductions of mortality and non-communicable diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Westenhöfer
- Competence Center Health and Department Health Sciences, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Ulmenliet 20, 21033, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Elham Nouri
- Competence Center Health and Department Health Sciences, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Ulmenliet 20, 21033, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Merle Linn Reschke
- Competence Center Health and Department Health Sciences, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Ulmenliet 20, 21033, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Fabian Seebach
- Competence Center Health and Department Health Sciences, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Ulmenliet 20, 21033, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Johanna Buchcik
- Competence Center Health and Department Health Sciences, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Ulmenliet 20, 21033, Hamburg, Germany
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Bhat TH, Farzaneh H, Toosty NT. Co-Benefit Assessment of Active Transportation in Delhi, Estimating the Willingness to Use Nonmotorized Mode and Near-Roadway-Avoided PM 2.5 Exposure. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:14974. [PMID: 36429693 PMCID: PMC9691015 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192214974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
This study aims to estimate the avoided mortalities and morbidities and related economic impacts due to adopting the nonmotorized transportation (NMT) policy in Delhi, India. To this aim, an integrated quantitative assessment framework is developed to estimate the expected environmental, health, and economic co-benefits from replacing personal motorized transport with NMT in Delhi, taking into account the inhabitants' willingness to use NMT (walking and cycling) mode. The willingness to accept NMT is estimated by conducting a cross-sectional survey in Delhi, which is further used to estimate the expected health benefits from both increased physical activity and near-roadway-avoided PM2.5 exposure in selected traffic areas in 11 major districts in Delhi. The value of a statistical life (VSL) and cost of illness methods are used to calculate the economic benefits of the avoided mortalities and morbidities from NMT in Delhi. The willingness assessment indicates that the average per capita time spent walking and cycling in Delhi is 11.054 and 2.255 min, respectively. The results from the application of the NMT in Delhi show the annual reduction in CO2 and PM2.5 to be 121.5 kilotons and 138.9 tons, respectively. The model estimates the expected co-benefits from increased physical activities and reduced PM2.5 exposure at 17,529 avoided cases of mortality with an associated savings of about USD 4870 million in Delhi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tavoos Hassan Bhat
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan
| | - Hooman Farzaneh
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan
- Transdisciplinary Research and Education Center for Green Technologies, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan
| | - Nishat Tasnim Toosty
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan
- Department of Statistics, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
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Henschel B, Gorczyca AM, Chomistek AK. Time Spent Sitting as an Independent Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease. Am J Lifestyle Med 2020; 14:204-215. [PMID: 32231486 PMCID: PMC7092398 DOI: 10.1177/1559827617728482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Sedentary behavior is highly prevalent despite growing evidence of adverse effects on the cardiovascular and metabolic system that are independent of the level of recreational physical activity (PA). We present results for the association between sitting time and cardiovascular disease (CVD) from selected cohort and cross-sectional studies published in or after the year 2010 according to the domains where sitting time is accumulated during the day. These include TV viewing, occupational sitting, and sitting during transportation as well as overall sitting. The outcomes considered in this review are total CVD, coronary heart disease, and stroke as well as CVD risk factors-namely, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and type 2 diabetes and their associated biomarkers. Finally, several current issues with regard to studying the effects of sitting time on CVD are discussed, including how sedentary behavior is assessed, isotemporal substitution modeling, examination of joint associations for sitting and PA, and benefits of breaks in sitting time. Overall, the scientific evidence supports public health recommendations that encourage adults to limit their sedentary time in order to improve their cardiovascular health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beate Henschel
- Department of Epidemiology and
Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana (BH, AKC)
- Center for Physical Activity and Weight
Management, Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Kansas
Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (AMG)
| | - Anna M. Gorczyca
- Department of Epidemiology and
Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana (BH, AKC)
- Center for Physical Activity and Weight
Management, Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of Kansas
Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (AMG)
| | - Andrea K. Chomistek
- Andrea K. Chomistek, MPH, ScD,
School of Public Health, Indiana University-Bloomington, 1025 E 7th
Street, Bloomington, IN 47405; e-mail:
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Luis de Moraes Ferrari G, Kovalskys I, Fisberg M, Gómez G, Rigotti A, Sanabria LYC, García MCY, Torres RGP, Herrera-Cuenca M, Zimberg IZ, Guajardo V, Pratt M, King AC, Solé D. Original research Socio-demographic patterning of self-reported physical activity and sitting time in Latin American countries: findings from ELANS. BMC Public Health 2019; 19:1723. [PMID: 31870408 PMCID: PMC6929436 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-019-8048-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Low levels of physical activity (PA) and prolonged sitting time (ST) increase the risk of non-communicable diseases and mortality, and can be influenced by socio-demographic characteristics. The aim of this study was to use self-report data to characterise socio-demographic patterns of PA and ST in eight Latin American countries. Methods Data were obtained from the Latin American Study of Nutrition and Health (ELANS), a household population-based, multi-national, cross-sectional survey (n = 9218, aged 15–65 years), collected from September 2014 to February 2015. Transport and leisure PA and ST were assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire–long version. Overall and country-specific mean and median levels of time spent in transport and leisure PA and ST were compared by sex, age, socioeconomic and education level. Results Mean levels of transport and leisure PA were 220.3 min/week (ranging from 177.6 min/week in Venezuela to 275.3 min/week in Costa Rica) and 316.4 min/week (ranging from 272.1 min/week in Peru to 401.4 min/week in Ecuador). Transport and leisure PA were higher (p < 0.005) in men than women with mean differences of 58.0 and 34.0 min/week. The mean and median for transport PA were similar across age groups (15–29 years: mean 215.5 and median 120 min/week; 30–59 years: mean 225.0 and median 120 min/week; ≥60 years: mean 212.0 and median 120 min/week). The median time spent in transport and leisure PA between three strata of socioeconomic and education levels were similar. The prevalence of not meeting PA recommendations were 69.9% (95% CI: 68.9–70.8) for transport and 72.8% (95% CI: 72.0–73.7) for leisure. Men, younger people (15–29 years), individuals with higher socioeconomic and education levels spent significantly (p < 0.001) more time sitting than women, older people (30–59 years and ≥ 60 years) and those in the middle and low socioeconomic and education groups, respectively. Conclusions Transport and leisure PA and ST range widely by country, sex, and age group in Latin America. Programs for promoting leisure and transport PA and reducing ST in Latin America should consider these differences by age and gender and between countries. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.Gov NCT02226627. Retrospectively registered on August 27, 2014.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerson Luis de Moraes Ferrari
- Centro de Investigación en Fisiologia del Ejercicio - CIFE, Universidad Mayor, José Toribio Medina, 29. Estacion Central, Santiago, Chile. .,Departamento de Pediatria da Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Irina Kovalskys
- Commitee of Nutrition and Wellbeing, International Life Science Institute (ILSI-Argentina), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mauro Fisberg
- Departamento de Pediatria da Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Instituto Pensi, Fundação José Luiz Egydio Setubal, Hospital Infantil Sabará, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Georgina Gómez
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Attilio Rigotti
- Centro de Nutrición Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas, Departamento de Nutrición, Diabetes y Metabolismo, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica, Santiago, Chile
| | | | | | | | - Marianella Herrera-Cuenca
- Centro de Estudios del Desarrollo, Universidad Central de Venezuela (CENDES-UCV)/Fundación Bengoa, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Ioná Zalcman Zimberg
- Departamento de Psicobiologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Viviana Guajardo
- Commitee of Nutrition and Wellbeing, International Life Science Institute (ILSI-Argentina), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Michael Pratt
- Institute for Public Health, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Abby C King
- Health Research & Policy Department and the Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Dirceu Solé
- Departamento de Pediatria da Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Porter AK, Kohl HW, Salvo D. Dose-response association of workplace facilities and policies with commuter bicycling among adults. JOURNAL OF TRANSPORT & HEALTH 2019; 14:100603. [PMID: 31431882 PMCID: PMC6701847 DOI: 10.1016/j.jth.2019.100603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Porter
- Department of Epidemiology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Gillings School of Global Public Health, 123 West Franklin St, Building C, Suite 410, Chapel Hill, NC, USA 27516
| | - Harold W Kohl
- Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics, and Environmental Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston School of Public Health in Austin, 1616 Guadalupe, Suite 6.300, Austin, TX, USA 78701
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at Austin College of Education, 1912 Speedway, Stop D5000, Austin, TX, USA 78712
| | - Deborah Salvo
- Brown School, Prevention Research Center in St. Louis & Center for Diabetes Translation Research, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Dr., Campus Box 1196, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
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Correcting Bias in Crowdsourced Data to Map Bicycle Ridership of All Bicyclists. URBAN SCIENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/urbansci3020062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Traditional methods of counting bicyclists are resource-intensive and generate data with sparse spatial and temporal detail. Previous research suggests big data from crowdsourced fitness apps offer a new source of bicycling data with high spatial and temporal resolution. However, crowdsourced bicycling data are biased as they oversample recreational riders. Our goals are to quantify geographical variables, which can help in correcting bias in crowdsourced, data and to develop a generalized method to correct bias in big crowdsourced data on bicycle ridership in different settings in order to generate maps for cities representative of all bicyclists at a street-level spatial resolution. We used street-level ridership data for 2016 from a crowdsourced fitness app (Strava), geographical covariate data, and official counts from 44 locations across Maricopa County, Arizona, USA (training data); and 60 locations from the city of Tempe, within Maricopa (test data). First, we quantified the relationship between Strava and official ridership data volumes. Second, we used a multi-step approach with variable selection using LASSO followed by Poisson regression to integrate geographical covariates, Strava, and training data to correct bias. Finally, we predicted bias-corrected average annual daily bicyclist counts for Tempe and evaluated the model’s accuracy using the test data. We found a correlation between the annual ridership data from Strava and official counts (R2 = 0.76) in Maricopa County for 2016. The significant variables for correcting bias were: The proportion of white population, median household income, traffic speed, distance to residential areas, and distance to green spaces. The model could correct bias in crowdsourced data from Strava in Tempe with 86% of road segments being predicted within a margin of ±100 average annual bicyclists. Our results indicate that it is possible to map ridership for cities at the street-level by correcting bias in crowdsourced bicycle ridership data, with access to adequate data from official count programs and geographical covariates at a comparable spatial and temporal resolution.
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Nicholas W, Vidyanti I, Caesar E, Maizlish N. Routine Assessment of Health Impacts of Local Transportation Plans: A Case Study From the City of Los Angeles. Am J Public Health 2019; 109:490-496. [PMID: 30676792 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2018.304879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine the health impacts of three future scenarios of travel behavior by mode for the City of Los Angeles, California, and to provide specific recommendations for how to conduct health impact assessments of local transportation plans on a more routine basis. METHODS We used the Integrated Transportation and Health Impact Model to assess the health impacts of the Los Angeles Mobility Plan 2035 by using environmental impact report data on miles traveled by mode under alternative implementation scenarios as inputs. The Integrated Transportation and Health Impact Model links region-wide changes in travel behavior to population exposures to physical activity, air pollution, and traffic collisions and associated health outcomes and costs. RESULTS The largest impacts were on cardiovascular disease through increases in physical activity. Reductions in air pollution-related illnesses were more modest. Traffic injuries and deaths increased across all scenarios but were greatly reduced through targeted roadway safety enhancements accounted for outside the model. CONCLUSIONS By establishing miles travelled as the metric for transportation impacts of statewide and regional plans, states can leverage existing data sources to more routinely consider health impacts as part of environmental impact reports. While not insurmountable, challenges remain regarding the incorporation of land use and roadway safety strategies into health impact estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Will Nicholas
- Will Nicholas, Irene Vidyanti, and Emily Caesar are with the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA. Neil Maizlish is with University of California, Davis
| | - Irene Vidyanti
- Will Nicholas, Irene Vidyanti, and Emily Caesar are with the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA. Neil Maizlish is with University of California, Davis
| | - Emily Caesar
- Will Nicholas, Irene Vidyanti, and Emily Caesar are with the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA. Neil Maizlish is with University of California, Davis
| | - Neil Maizlish
- Will Nicholas, Irene Vidyanti, and Emily Caesar are with the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA. Neil Maizlish is with University of California, Davis
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Mansfield TJ, Peck D, Morgan D, McCann B, Teicher P. The effects of roadway and built environment characteristics on pedestrian fatality risk: A national assessment at the neighborhood scale. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2018; 121:166-176. [PMID: 30248532 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2018.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Revised: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Characteristics of the transportation system and built environment contribute to pedestrian fatality risks, including vehicular traffic and land-use characteristics associated with higher pedestrian activity. We combined data from FHWA, NHTSA, EPA, and the Census Bureau and performed regression modeling to explore associations between transportation system and built environment characteristics and pedestrian fatalities between 2012 and 2016 at the Census tract scale across the United States. In urban tracts, we found especially strong associations between traffic on non-access-controlled principal arterial and minor arterial roadways and pedestrian fatalities (0.91 and 0.68 additional annual pedestrian fatalities per 100,000 persons per 10,000 VMT/mi2 increase in traffic density, respectively). In both urban and rural tracts, we also found strong associations between employment density in the retail sector and pedestrian fatalities. Finally, we compared our model to the High Injury Network in Los Angeles, CA. Nearly half (43%) of observed fatalities were identified by both methods, while some fatalities were identified by only one (19% by our model and 23% by the High Injury Network). This work shows that traffic on certain roadway facility types and employment in certain sectors have especially strong associations with pedestrian fatality risk. More broadly, we illustrate how leveraging cross-disciplinary data in novel ways can support prospective, risk-based assessments of pedestrian fatality risks and support integrated and systemic approaches to transportation safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore J Mansfield
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, US Department of Transportation, Office of Policy Development, Strategic Planning and Performance, 1200 New Jersey Avenue, Washington, DC 20590, United States.
| | - Dana Peck
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, US Department of Transportation, Office of Policy Development, Strategic Planning and Performance, 1200 New Jersey Avenue, Washington, DC 20590, United States.
| | - Daniel Morgan
- US Department of Transportation, Office of the Chief Information Officer, 1200 New Jersey Avenue, Washington, DC 20590, United States.
| | - Barbara McCann
- US Department of Transportation, Office of Policy Development, Strategic Planning and Performance, 1200 New Jersey Avenue, Washington, DC 20590, United States.
| | - Paul Teicher
- US Department of Transportation, Office of Policy Development, Strategic Planning and Performance, 1200 New Jersey Avenue, Washington, DC 20590, United States.
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Bechle MJ, Millet DB, Marshall JD. Does Urban Form Affect Urban NO 2? Satellite-Based Evidence for More than 1200 Cities. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:12707-12716. [PMID: 28898072 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b01194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Modifying urban form may be a strategy to mitigate urban air pollution. For example, evidence suggests that urban form can affect motor vehicle usage, a major contributor to urban air pollution. We use satellite-based measurements of urban form and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) to explore relationships between urban form and air pollution for a global data set of 1274 cities. Three of the urban form metrics studied (contiguity, circularity, and vegetation) have a statistically significant relationship with urban NO2; their combined effect could be substantial. As illustration, if findings presented here are causal, that would suggest that if Christchurch, New Zealand (a city at the 75th percentile for all three urban-form metrics, and with a network of buses, trams, and bicycle facilities) was transformed to match the urban form of Indio - Cathedral City, California, United States (a city at the 25th percentile for those same metrics, and exhibiting sprawl-like suburban development), our models suggest that Christchurch's NO2 concentrations would be ∼60% higher than its current level. We also find that the combined effect of urban form on NO2 is larger for small cities (β × IQR = -0.46 for cities < ∼300 000 people, versus -0.22 for all cities), an important finding given that cities less than 500 000 people contain a majority of the urban population and are where much of the future urban growth is expected to occur. This work highlights the need for future study of how changes in urban form and related land use and transportation policies impact urban air pollution, especially for small cities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Bechle
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Washington , 201 More Hall, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Dylan B Millet
- Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota , 439 Borlaug Hall, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, United States
| | - Julian D Marshall
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Washington , 201 More Hall, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
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